Forest 


C.  A.  Schenck,  Ph.  D 


Presented  to 


THE  BILTMORE  ROOM 

North  Carolina  State  College 

School  of  Forestry 


Bv     ^^JI£m^ec.. 


Biitn.ore  Fore.t  School.  Class  of   111 P 
Date     Z?eC.     //       /f^y 


FOREST  PROTEGTION 


Guide  to  Lectures 

Delivered  at  the  Biltmore  Forest  School 

by 

C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.  D. 

Director. 


1909 


O 


The  Inland  Press, 
Ashevllle.  N.   C. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2009  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/forestprotectionOOsche 


PREFACE 

This  book  on  "forest  protection"  is  being  printed,  pre-eminently,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  students  attending  the  Bihmore  Forest  School. 

In  American  forestry,  the  most  important  duty  of  the  forester  consists 
in  the  suppression  of  forest  fires. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  a  second  gro'wi;h  would  follow  invariably 
in  the  wake  of  a  first  growth  removed  by  the  forester  or  by  the  lumberman; 
and  the  problem  of  forest  conservation  would  solve  itself. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  a  second  growth  would  have  a  definite, 
prospective  value;  and  it  would  be  worth  while  to  treat  it  sylviculturally. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  our  investments  made  in  merchantable 
timber  would  be  more  secure;  and  there  would  be  a  lesser  inducement  for 
the  rapid  conversion  of  timber  into  cash. 

The  issue  of  forest  fires  stand  paramount  in  all  forest  protection.  Com- 
pared with  this  issue,  the  other  topics  treated  in  the  following  pages  dwindle 
down  to  insignificance. 

I  write  this  with  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  leading  timber  firms 
in  this  coimtry  place  an  estimate  of  less  than  1%  on  their  annual  losses  of 
timber  due  to  fires: 

These  firms  are  operating  close  to  their  holdings;  and  if  a  tract  is  kUled 
by  fire  the  operations  are  swung  over  into  the  burned  section  as  speedily 
as  possible;  and  the  salvage  may  amoimt  to  99%  of  the  timber  burned. 

These  firms  do  not  pay  any  attention,  in  their  estimate,  to  the  "lu- 
crum cessans,"  nor  to  the  prospective  value  of  inferior  trees,  poles,  saplings 
and  seedlings. 

The  "prospective  forest"  is  the  forest  of  the  future;  and  this  forest 
is  annihilated  by  the  fires. 

Merchantable  trees  of  immediate  value  cannot  be  killed  any  "more 
dead"  by  fires,  nor  by  insects,  nor  by  strom,  than  by  the  legitimate  use  of 
axe  and  saw. 

Where  the  means  of  transportation  are  ready,  the  damage  inflicted 
upon  the  forest  and  upon  its  owner  by  catastrophies  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minim  mn. 

In  writing  the  paragraph  on  "forest  insects,"  I  have  availed  myself 
of  many  hints  obtained  from  Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins.  My  ovm.  knowledge  of 
forest  insects  amounts  to  little;  and  on  the  basis  of  past  experience,  I  strongly 
recommend  to  all  foresters  a  "lack  of  self-reliance"  in  forest  entomological 
questions.  Consult  Dr.  Hopkins  before  spending  any  money  for  fighting 
insects! 

Mr.  C.  D.  Couden  has  revised  and  rewritten  my  manuscript  on  forest 
insects,  eliminating  many  mistakes  made  by  a  layman.  My  sincerest  thanks 
are  tendered  to  him  herewith. 


4  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Whatever  I  know  of  American  tree  diseases  and  of  timber  diseases  in- 
duced by  fungi,  I  have  learned  from  Dr.  Hermann  von  Schrenk.  The 
errors  only  which  may  have  crept  into  the  7th  paragraph  of  this  book  deal- 
ing with  fungus  diseases  are  my  own. 

The  graduates  of  the  Biltmore  Forest  School,  and  all  other  gentle  readers 
are  earnestly  requested  to  assist  me  in  the  elimination  of  errors  and  mis- 
takes contained  in  this  book  on  forest  protection. 

Biltmore,  N.  C,  October  1,  1909.  C.  A.  Schenck. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


DEFINITION  AND  SYNOPSIS. 

The  term  "Forest  Protection"  comprises  all  the  acts  of  the  forest-owner 
made  with  a  view  to  the  safety  of  his  investments. 

Forest  Protection  as  a  branch  of  science  is  divided  into  the  following 
parts  and  chapters: 

PART  A:  Protection  Against  Organic  Nature. 
Chapter  I:      Protection  against  man. 
Chapter  II:    Protection  against  animals. 
Chapter  III:  Protection  against  plants. 

PART  B:  Protection  Against  Inorganic  Nature. 

Chapter  I :      Protection  against  adverse  climatic  influences. 

A— Heat. 

B— Frost. 

C — Snow  and  sleet. 
Chapter  II:     Protection  against  storm,  erosion,  sanddrifts,  noxious 
gases. 

D — Wind  and  storm. 

E — Erosion. 

F — Shifting  sand. 

G — Noxious  gases. 

The  English  literature  on  Forest  Protection  consists,  in  the  main,  of 
the  following: 

Dr.  Wm.  Schlich,  Vol.  IV.  of  "Manual  of  Forestry." 

Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Bulletins  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Station.     Bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomologj\ 

Tubeuf  and  Smith,  "Diseases  of  Plants." 

Dr.  H.  von  Schrenk,  bulletins  of  the  Shaw  School  of  Botany,  bulle- 
tins of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry  and  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry. 

Lectures  on  game  protection,  on  protection  of  forest-roads  and  forest- 
railroads,  on  protection  of  forest  industries — of  vital  interest  to  the  owner 
of  forests — are  not  included  in  the  following  paragraphs.  The  author's 
excuse  for  this  omission  lies  in  the  word  "precedent." 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


CONTENTS  IN  PARAGRAPHS. 


Par.    1.  Protection  against  adverse  possession. 

Par.    2.  Protection  against  forest  fires. 

Par.    3.  Protection  against  domestic  animals  on  pasture. 

Par.    4.  Protection  against  wild  vertebrates. 

Par.    5.  Protection  against  insects. 

Par.    6.  Protection  against  weeds. 

Par.    7.  Protection  against  fungi. 

Par.    8.  Protection  against  parasites  other  than  fungi. 

Par.    9.  Protection  against  frost. 

Par.  10.  Protection  against  heat. 

Par.  11.  Protection  against  snow  and  sleet. 

Par.  12.  Protection  against  wind  and  storm. 

Par.  13.  Protection  against  erosion. 

Par.  14.  Protection  against  shifting  sand. 

Par.  15.  Protection  against  noxious  gases. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 

Part  A :  Protection  Against  Organic  Nature 

CHAPTER  1.   PROTECTION  AGAINST  MAN. 


Par.  1.    Protection  Against  Adverse  Possession. 

Adverse  possession  and  its  consequences  are  best  prevented  by  con- 
tinuous, open  and  notorious  possession  of  every  acre  of  land  comprised  in 
the  property.  To  that  end,  a  proper  survey  is  necessary,  coupled  with  de- 
mar  kation  of  the  boundary  lines  by  proper  marks  or  by  fences;  of  the  cor- 
ners by  proper  corner  trees  and  witnesses. 

Wooden  stakes  as  corner  signs  are  objectionable;  iron  "T"  stakes,  5' 
long,  costing  35  to  60  cents  apiece,  are  extensively  used  at  Biltmore. 

The  exactness  of  the  survey  depends  on  the  acre-value  of  the  forest. 

The  lines  of  the  property,  established  by  the  demarkation,  must  be 
maintained  by  continuous  patrolling.  The  posting  of  trespass  notices  and 
the  trimming  of  bushes  along  the  lines  are  advisable,  if  not  legally  required. 
Foremen,  tenants  and  guards  should  know  the  lines  perfectly  so  as  to  be 
witnesses  available  in  lawsuits. 

In  the  case  of  disputes  with  neighbors,  refuge  to  "processioning  pro- 
ceedings" is  taken. 

The  forester  should  endeavor  to  straighten  the  lines  of  the  forest  by 
purchase  or  exchange,  and  to  substitute  natural  boundary  lines  for  arti- 
ficial lines. 

Squatters,  with  the  help  of  state  grants  or  other  colorable  title, — or 
without  title  but  with  distinct  boundary  lines  and  with  distinct  possession — 
become  owners  within  a  few  years. 

In  real  estate  law,  the  written  word  is  decisive  rather  than  the  gist 
of  a  contract. 

The  lessee  surrenders  to  the  lessor  all  claim  to  the  property  on  which 
he  lives. 

All  deeds  pertaining  to  a  piece  of  property  should  be  placed  on  pub- 
lic record. 

Suit  should  be  brought  in  the  federal  courts,  preferably. 

In  the  distant  future,  the  increased  value  of  real  property  will  force 
the  states  to  "legalize"  the  individual  holdings  after  careful  survey. 

The  administering  forester  must  command  a  good  knowledge  of  real 
estate  law;  he  should  leave  no  means  untried  to  ferret  out  the  trespass! 
and  to  secure  his  conviction. 

The  most  important  laws  in  this  connection  are  those  concerning 
Destruction  of  corner  marks 
Larceny  of  wood  and  timber 
Entering  land  when  forbidden 
Arrest 
Proceedings  at  court. 


real 


8  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  2.    Protection  Against  Forest  Fires. 

Protection  against  forest  fires  means,  practically,  protection  against 
man  who,  intentionally  or  carelessly,  causes  the  very  large  majority  of  all 
forest  fires.     Fires  due  to  lightning  are  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  East. 

A:  Causes  of  Fires: 

I: — Fires  are  intentionally  set: — 

To  improve  pasture. 

To  uncover  minerals  for  prospecting. 

To  gather  chestnuts. 

To  force  the  owner  of  woodlands  to  purchase  interior  holdings. 

To  chase  deer  or  turkeys. 

To  drive  bees  or  coons  from  trees. 

To  improve  the  huckleberry  crop. 

To  facilitate  access  to  thick  woods. 

To  get  a  job  at  stopping  fires. 

To  surround  farms,  pastures  or  forests  with  a  safety  belt  of  burned 
land. 

To  mask  trespass  by  fishing  and  hunting. 

To  take  revenge  for  supposed  acts  of  animosity. 
II: — Fires  carelessly  started  result  from: — 

Locomotive  sparks  and  cinders. 

Sparks  from  forest  cabins. 

Campers'  and  hunters'  fires. 

Charcoal   burning,    rock   blasting,   tobacco    smoking,    burning   ad- 
joining fields  or  pastures. 

B:  Kinds  of  Forest  Fires: 

Fires  are  distinguished  as: — 
Surface  fires. 
Underground  fires. 
Top  fires. 

C:  Damage  by  Fires: 

The  damage  done  by  forest  fires  consists  of  the  loss  of  present  values 
or  of  the  loss  of  prospective  values;  seedlings  are  killed;  saplings  burst  open; 
etool  shoots  replace  seedling  growth. 

A  heavy  growth  of  weeds,  frequently  following  in  the  wake  of  forest 
fires,  prevents  natural  or  artificial  regeneration.  A  deterioration  of  pro- 
ductiveness is  the  natural  consequence  of  deteriorated  soil,  due  to  destruc- 
n  of  humus. 

Trees  weakened  by  fires  cease  to  resist  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi. 

s  burned  at  the  stump  are  subject  to  breakage  by  sleet  or  snow. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  9 

D:  The  Factors  Influencing  the  Amount  of  Damage  are: — 
The  age  of  the  woods. 
The  aspect  of  the  slope. 

The  severity  of  the  wind,  and  the  uphill  or  downhill  direction  of  the  wind. 
The  season  of  the  year  and  the  preceding  duration  of  drought. 
The  silvicultural  system. 

The  amount  of  debris  and  humus  on  the  ground. 
The  species  forming  the  forest  (conifers  have  less  reproductive  power; 

light  demanders  usually  have  fireproof  armor  of  bark;  thin  or  thick 

layer  of  sap  wood.) 

E:  The  Measures  Taken  Against  Forest  Fires  are  Either  of  a  Pre- 
ventive OR  OF  A  Remedial  Nature: 

I. — Preventive  measures: — 

Education  of  the  people  and  of  the  legislature  through  the  news- 
papers and  from  the  pulpit. 
Friendly  relations  with  all  neighbors. 
Securing  proper  fire  laws  and  publishing  notices  giving  the  essence 

of  such  laws. 
The  purchase  of  all  interior  holdings. 
Settlements  of  tenants  within  the  forest. 
Telephone  connection  in  the  forest. 

Fire  lanes  (in  India  up  to  400'  wide)  kept  clear  from  inflammable 
material.  Such  lanes  exist  along  all  European  railroads.  In 
America  the  main  advantage  of  a  fire  lane  lies  in  the  possi- 
bility of  back  firing  with  the  lane  as  a  basis. 
Trails  or  roads,  further  strips  of  pasture  along  the  ridges  and  strips 
of  farmland  along  the  creeks  form  the  most  useful  fire  lanes. 
Burning  all  around  the  forest  at  the  beginning  of  the  dangerous 

season. 
Burning  debris  after  kmibering — a  measure  of  doubted  expediency. 
Removing  debris  from  the  close  proximity  of  valuable  trees. 
Proper  contracts  for  all  work  in  the  woods  by  which  the  liability 
for  damage  caused  by  fires  is  thrown  upon  the  contractor. 
Annual   burning  of  the   woods  intended  to  prevent   the   accumu- 
lation of  vegetable  matter  or  mould.     (Pineries  of  the  South). 
Removing  duff  from  the  close  proximity  of  turpentine  boxes. 
Stock  law. 

Associations  of  forest  owners,  as  in  Idaho,  Washington  and  Oregon. 
Pasture  by  cattle  and  hogs  to  cause  a  more  rapid  decomposition 

of  the  vegetable  carpet. 
Unceasing  patrol  of  the  forest  during  the  dry  season  or  during  dry    . 
spells,  day  and  night,  by  an  increased  staff  of  watchmen,  thor-     ' 
oughly  acquainted  with  their  beat  and  with  the  people  living 
in  the  neighborhood. 


10  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II. — Remedial  Measures: — 
a. — Main  principles: — 

Have  one  man  in  full  charge  and  hold  him  alone  responsible. 

Have  helpers  and  relays  for  helpers  ready  in  the  various  ranges 
{scattering  the  work)  during  droughts,  employmg  them  in 
lumbering  or  in  silviculture  until  their  help  is  required 
at  a  fire.  . 

The  foreman,  upon  arrival  at  the  fire,  must  first  ascertam  the 
speed  of  the  fire  and  the  length  of  the  line  of  attack;  fur- 
ther, the  distance  from  the  next  fire  lane  (trail,  brook, 
pasture),  and  the  amount  of  help  locally  available. 

The  foreman  must  not  hesitate  to  abandon  the  burning  dis- 
trict, up  to  the  next  or  second  next  fire  lane. 

Food  and  water  for  the  fire-fighters  must  be  provided. 

The  fire  is  subdued  only  when  the  last  spark  is  extinguished. 
The  edges  of  the  burned  area  must  be  watched  for  24 
hours  succeeding  the  fire. 

b.— Tools.— 

The  axe,  hoe,  spade,  shovel,  rake  (preferably  wooden  teeth); 
brooms;  plows  on  abandoned  fields;  water  buckets  and 
sprinkling  cans;  pack-train,  or  railroad-velocipedes  prop- 
erly equipped;  fire  extinguishers. 

c. — Actual  Work: 

(1)  Underground  fires  can  be  stopped  only  by  digging  ditches 
and  by  turning  water  into  them. 

(2)  Surface  fires  are  stopped 

By  plowing  or  digging  a  furrow  around  the  fire. 

By  beating  the  fire  out  with  brooms  or  green  twigs. 

By  removing  the  humus  and  debris  from  a  narrow  line 
in  front  of  the  fire  by  hand  or  rake. 

By  throwing  dirt  on  the  fire. 

By  sprinkling  in  front  of  the  fire. 

By  the  use  of  extinguishers  against  the  flame  itself. 

By  back-firing  from  the  next  point  of  vantage  with  due 
regard  for  the  speed  of  the  fire— the  best  and  only 
remedy  in  the  case  of  heavy  conflagrations. 

(3)  Top  fires  can  be  stopped  only  by  providing  broad  fire 
lanes  on  which  the  trees  are  cut,  and  by  back-firing  from 
such  lanes. 

(4)  Stem  fires  burning  in  hollow  trees  are  stopped  by  filling 
the  holes  in  the  trunk  with  dirt  or  by  cutting  the  tree 
down. 

Fires  going  down  hill,  against  the  wind  and  in  the  hours  following  mid- 
night are  the  easiest  to  subdue. 

For  the  history  of  some  famous  forest  fires,  see  Pinchot's  Primer,  Part  I. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  11 

For  a  number  of  tree  species  (notably  Douglas  fir,  Yellow  pines,  Jack 
pine,  Lodgepole  pine.  Aspen)  fire  must  be  considered  as  an  excellent  silvi- 
cultural  tool  or  as  a  means  of  securing  regeneration. 
F: — Treatment  of  Injured  Woods. 

The  treatment  of  injured  woods  differs  according  to  species,  age  of 
woods,  market  facilities  and  severity  of  damage  inflicted. 

I — Thickets  of  broadleaved  species  it  is  best  to  coppice,  or  else  to  clip 
down  with  the  help  of  long  handled  priming  shears. 
Thickets  of  conifers  are  either  so  badly  damaged  as  to  require  re- 
generation anew  or  are  so  little  damaged  as  not  to  require  any  help. 

II— Pole  Woods. 

Pole  woods  of  broadleaved  species  are  most  severely  damaged  by 
spring  fires,  and  should  be  cut  where  salable. 
Pole  woods  of  conifers,  if  apt  to  die,  should  be  made  into  money 
immediately,  where  possible. 

If  coniferous  pole  woods  are  apt  to  live,  careful  trap-tree  prac- 
tice will  tend  to  avoid  more  severe  injury  from  insect  plagues. 

III.— Tree  Forests. 

Broadleaved  tree  forests  are  not  apt  to  be  injured  by  surface  fires 
sufficiently  to  cause  the  death  of  the  trees.  Hence,  usually,  the 
trees  are  allowed  to  stand.  If,  however,  a  majority  of  the  trees 
are  killed,  speedy  utilization  is  necessary. 

In  coniferous  tree  forests,  trees  are  either  at  once  killed  by 
the  fire,  requiring  immediate  removal,  or  else  not  sufficiently  touched 
to  be  doomed.  In  the  latter  case,  the  use  of  trap  trees  is  required 
to  prevent  insect  plagues  from  developing. 

The  presence  of  permanent  means  of  transportation  aynnecting 
the  forest  vnth  a  ready  market  is,  under  all  circumstances,  the  most 
important  factor  in  preventing  material  damage  from  striking  the 
owner  of  merchantable  forests  killed  by  conflagrations. 


12  FOREST  PROTECTION 

CHAPTER  II:  PROTECTION  AGAINST  ANIMALS. 


Par.  3.     Protection  Against  Domestic  Animals  on  Pasture. 
A — Introduction. 

Forest  pasture  is  a  legitimate  forest  industry.  The  waste  pro- 
duction of  the  soil,  in  addition  to  shoots  and  branches  of  trees,  are  util- 
ized by  pasturing  stock.  Vegetable  matter  transformed  into  flesh  or 
wool  adopts  a  more  marketable  and  a  more  profitable  shape. 

Forest  pasture  is,  obviously,  best  adapted  to  woods  of  low  stump- 
age  prices;  of  difficult  access;  of  scant  timber  production  (East  slopes 
of  the  Cascades;  ridge  between  Pisgah  and  Balsam  mountains). 

Forest  pasture  plays  a  role  in  the  forest  similar  to  that  which  field 
pasture  plays  on  the  farm. 

Whether  forest  pasture  pays  better  in  connection  with  tree  growth 
or  regardless  of  timber  production, — that  is  a  financial  question  to  be 
answered  by  every  land  owner  on  the  basis  of  local  experience  and  of 
individual  forecast. 

Abroad,  since  times  immemorial,  forests  have  been  pastured  and 
are  still  pastured  to  a  surprising  extent. 

Pasture  frequently  acts  as  a  silvicultural  tool;  hogs  are  vised  to 
break  the  soil  and  to  destroy  insects;  cattle  or  sheep  driven  over  seed 
plantations  or  through  the  woods  after  seed-fall  imbed  the  seeds  to  a 
proper  depth;  they  destroy  rank  weeds  overshadowing  valuable  seed- 
lings. 

B — ^The  Damage  by  Pasture  in  the  Forest  is  Threefold: — 
I. — To  soil.     Pasture  hardens  hard  soil  and  loosens  loose  soil. 
II. — To  trees.     This  damage  consists  of: 

a. — Browsing  on  buds,  leaves  and  shoots. 

b. — Eating  seeds  and  uprooting  seedlings. 

c. — Tramping  dowTi  seedlings  and  over-riding  saplings. 

d. — Tossing-off  the  tops  of  saplings. 

e. — Peeling  hardwood  poles  in  spring. 

III. — To  roads  and  road  drainage. 
C. — Factors  of  Damage  are: 

I. — Species  of  trees:  Those  most  exposed  are  ash,  maple,  locust,  chest- 
nut, linden,  elm;  less  exposed  are  yellow  poplar,  willows,  oaks 
(horses  like  oaks),  birch,  fir,  hickory  and  walnut;  least  endangered 
are  larch,  spruce,  pine.     Practically  safe  is  red  cedar. 

II. — Age  of  trees:     The  seedling  stage  suffers  most. 
III. — Silvicultural  system:    Systems  in  which  the  age  classes  are  mixed 
suffer  most,  notably  selection  system  and  group  system. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  13 

IV. — Locality:    Steep  slope,  loose  soil  and  shifting  sand  suffer  severely. 

V. — Species  of  animals:     The  animals  may  be  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing schedule,  placing  the  damage  done  by  a  horse  at  100: 

Horse  or  mule  foal 150 

Horse  or  mule 100 

Yearling  cattle 75 

GrowTi  cattle 50 

Goats  25 

Sheep 10 

Since  a  goat  weighs  80  lbs.  and  a  horse  10  times  as  much,  the  dam- 
age done  by  the  goat  is  relatively  great.  In  addition,  goats  prefer 
woody  shoots  and  buds  to  mere  grass. 

The  rates  charged  for  forest  pasture  in  Pisgah  Forest  correspond 

more  or  less  with  this  schedule,  viz: 

Horses 90  cents  per  head  per  month 

Cattle 50  cents  per  head  per  month 

Sheep 10  cents  per  head  per  month 

In  the  pineries  of  the  South,  the  lease  receipts  from  pasture  offset 
the  taxes  frequently.  Foals  destroy  pasture  more  by  their  mere 
frolics  than  by  their  appetite.  After  Himdeshagen,  10  to  12J/^ 
acres  of  forest  are  required  for  the  pasture  of  one  head  of  cattle. 
VI. — Season  of  the  year.  Spring  pasture  is  more  destructive  than 
smnmer  or  fall  pasture. 

D. — Closed  Time. 

In  Central  Europe  young  woods  are  closed  to  pasturage  for  a  nmnber 
of  years. 

AGE  OF  WOODS  WHEN  PASTURE  BEGINS,  IN  YEARS. 


SPECIES  OF 

HIGH  FOREST, 
BROAD  LE.VF 

HIGH  FOREST, 
CONIFERS 

COPPICE 

FOREST 

Horses    

Cattle 

18  to  24 
14  to  18 

12  to  20 
9  to  16 

6  to  14 
4  to  10 

-Duration  of  Pasture 

In  Western  North  Carolina,  cattle  are  pastured  in  the  woods  from  May 
1st,  to  October  loth,  whilst  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  on  pasture  dur- 
ing the  entire  year,  fed  only  slightly  after  a  hea\y  snow  fall. 
In  the  pineries  of  the  South,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  in  the  woods 
during  the  entire  year.  Cattle  are  fed  slightly,  in  addition  to  the  pas- 
ture, durmg  the  four  winter  months.  The  much  disputed  pasture  in 
the  Sierras  and  Cascades  is  used  only  during  the  three  summer  months 
when  the  pasture  in  the  lowlands  dries  out. 


14  FOREST  PROTECTION 

F. — Pasture  in  the  National  Forests: 

The  pasture  of  sheep  and  goats  is  generally  prohibited;  cattle  pasture 
generally  allov/ed. 

Sheep  ranges  and  cattle  ranges  are  kept  strictly  apart. 
The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  determines  annually  the  amount  of  pas- 
turage permitted  for  each  forest,  viz: 

a. — The  number  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  to  be  admitted; 

b. — The  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  grazing  season; 

c. — The  ranges  actually  to  be  grazed. 
The  stock  of  residents  owning  holdings  within  the  forests  is  given  pre- 
ference over  "neighboring  stock."     Only  citizens  of  the  State  are  en- 
titled to  grazing  privileges. 

Under  any  circumstances,  permits  must  be  obtained  through  the  super- 
visor by  stock  owners  intendmg  to  pasture  on  the  reserve  (the  stock 
of  travelers  and  prospectors  excepted).  Sheep  must  be  herded  by  a 
herdsman. 

The  sheep  ranges  are  allotted  separately,  usually  according  to  the  re- 
commendation of  the  local  Wool  Growers'  Association.  Promiscuous 
sheep  grazing  is  strictly  prohibited. 

Permit  holders  are  required  to  prevent  and  to  fight  fires  without  com- 
pensation. 

G. — Protective  Measures  Me.ant  to  Safeguard  the  TiitBER  Interests 
OF  THE  Land  Owner: — 
I. — Animals: 

a. — Limit  the  number  of  anunals  admitted, 
b. — Exclude  goats. 

c. — Prevent  cattle  from  following  sheep. 
II.— Time: 

a. — Prevent  pasture  in  early  spring. 

b. — Insist  on  close  time  during  regeneration  and  up  to  the  thicket 

stage. 
c. — Close  forest  pasture  periodically  so  as  to  allow  tree  seedlings 
to  escape  the  mouth  of  browsing  animals. 

III. — Fencing: 

For  cattle  pasture,  two  or  three  strings  of  barbed  wire  are  suffi- 
cient. For  sheep  pasture  three  or  four  strings.  100  lbs.  of  barbed 
wire  form  a  string  1,600  to  1,900  feet  long. 

Individual  trees  or  seedlings,  like  orchard  trees,  are  sometimes 
protected  by  screens  placed  around  the  tree. 

IV. — Seedlings  should  be  planted  within  the  "bays"  of  tree  sttimps 
after  clear  cutting  wherever  artificial  regeneration  is  resorted  to. 
Seed  planting  should  be  avoided. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  15 


Par.  4.    Protection  Against  Wild  Vertebrates. 

Amongst  the  wild  animals  preying  upon  the  forest  the  mammals  figure 
as  well  as  the  birds.  The  role  played  by  the  vertebrates  in  the  "  house- 
hold" of  the  forest  is  little  known. 

Birds  and  mammals  may  injure  the  forest  directly — by  eating  vege- 
table matter  produced  in  the  forest, — or  indirectly — by  killing  the 
friends  of  the  forester.  Utility  of  a  wild  animal  is  frequently  combined 
with  noxiousness,  e.  g.  in  the  case  of  the  crow,  blue-jay,  fox. 
Useful  animals  may  help  the  forester  either  directly — by  seed  distri- 
bution,— or  indirectly — by  killing  the  enemies  of  the  forest. 

A. — Protection  Against  Mammals  Forming  the  Object  of  Chase. 
I. — Deer. 

a. — The  damage  done  consists  in: — 
Eating  fruits. 

Browsing  on  shoots  and  seedlings. 
Peeling  the  bark  of  saplings   and  poles    (notably   of  spruce, 

oak,  ash). 
Rubbing  off  the  bark  when  freeing  the  antlers  of  velvet. 
Tramping  down  plantations  or  natural  regenerations. 

The  objects  of  damage  are,  above  all,  the  rare  species,  or  species 
arousing  the  curiosity  of  the  deer. 

b. — Protective  measures  are: — 

Proper  regulation  of  the  number  of  deer.  Compatible  with 
the  objects  of  silviculture  are,  per  10,000  acres,  50  head  of 
elk  or  150  head  of  Virginia  deer,  provided  that  nurseries  are 
fenced. 

Feeding  during  winter  by  cutting  soft  woods  or  by  providing 
hay  stacks.  Mast-bearing  trees  should  be  encouraged;  grass 
meadows  should  be  maintained;  a  few  patches  should  be  planted 
in  turnips,  potatoes,  clover,  etc.  Maintaining  salt  licks,  es- 
pecially with  a  view  to  preventing  bark  peeling  in  spring. 
Hohlfeld's  game  powder  is  said  to  answer  the  purpose  still 
better.  Fencing  nurseries  and  young  growth. 
Sprinkling  seedlings  with  kerosene,  liquid  manure,  blood, 
cotton  residue  or,  better,  covering  the  fall  shoots,  exclusive  of 
bud,  with  coal  tar.  Coal  tar  is  especially  effective  in  the  case 
of  fir  and  spruce.  Thinnings  should  be  delayed  as  long  as 
possible.  Planting  is  preferable  to  sowing,  especially  to  sow- 
ing in  the  fall. 

II. — Wild  Boar.  Boar  are  particularly  disastrous  to  nurseries,  nat- 
ural regenerations  and  plantations.  The  only  remedies  are  strong 
fences. 


16  FOREST  PROTECTION 

III. — Hares  and  Rabbits.  The  damage  done  consists  in  the  biting- 
off  of  top  shoots  (notably  of  oaks,  maples,  firs,  but  also  of  pine); 
further,  in  gna wing-off  the  bark  of  locust,  crata?gus,  cherry,  hard 
maple,  linden. 

At  Biltmore,  rabbits  feast  especially  on  the  shoots  of  the  Buffalo 
nut  (Pyrularia).  The  seedlings  of  Pinus  echinata,  in  certain  years, 
were  bitten-off  in  the  nurseries. 

Plantations  of  acorns  at  Biltmore  have  been  annihilated  by  the 
rabbits,  the  shoots  being  clipped  year  after  year.  Thus  the  oak 
seedlings  were  prevented  from  successfully  competing  with  the 
weeds  (broom  sedge).  Nurseries  require  a  fine  meshed  fence. 
Remedies  lie,  above  all.  in  the  protection  of  the  fox,  'possimi,  skunk, 
marten,  weasel,  hawk,  coon,  mynx. 

In  addition,  sprinkling  with  coal  tar  (not  on  buds!)  and  wrapping 
of  top  shoots  in  cotton  waste  is  recommended. 
The  planting  of  rabbit-proof  species  (notably  Picea  pungens  and 
Picea  Sitchensis)  is  advisable. 

B. — Protection  Against  Mammals  which  do  not  Form  the  Object  of 
THE  Chase. 

Obviously,  all  carniverous  animals  are  friends  of  the  forester,  whilst 
most  herbivorous  animals  appear  as  his  enemies.  Amongst  the  plant 
eaters,  the  rodents  excel  in  the  amotmt  of  harm  done. 

I. — Squirrels. 

a. — Damage  done. 

Squirrels  eat  the  seed  on  the  tree  as  well  as  the  seed  planted 
by  nature  and  man,  preferring  sweet  oaks,  beech,  chestnut, 
walnut,  cucumber-tree,  hickories,  pines.  They  eat  the  coty- 
ledons, buds  and  cambium  of  yoimg  shoots  and  destroy  the 
nest  brood  of  some  useful  birds.  In  the  Pink  Beds,  the  top 
shoots  of  white  pine  are  cut  off  by  the  squirrels.  Plantations 
of  the  heavy  seeded  broad  leaved  species  have  been  destroyed 
at  Biltmore  repeatedly. 

b. — Protective  measures. 

Protect  the  fox,  marten,  skunk,  coon,  o'possum,  hawk,  owl, 

cat  (wild  and  tame)  and  all  other  enemies. 

Remove  hollow  trees  forming  the  hiding  and  nesting  places 

of  the  squirrel. 

Plant  seedlings  or,  possibly,  nuts  after  sprouting,  and  if  seeds 

must  be  planted,  resort  to  spring-planting  of  the  same. 

c. — Remedial  measures. 
1 — Shoot  the  squirrel. 

2 — Poison  it  by  bathing  the  seeds  in  strychnine  before  plant- 
ing, a  means  found  ineffective  at  Biltmore. 

II. — Chipmunk.  Similar  damage  and  same  remedies  as  for  the  squirrel. 
Its  main  enemy  at  Biltmore  is  the  black  snake  and  the  rattlesnake. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  17 

III.— Mice. 

a. — Damage  done. 

The  mice  live  on  buds,  seeds,  seedlings  and  the  cambium  layers 
of  seedlings. 

The  field  mice  undermine  the  ground  in  nurseries  and  planta- 
tions following  the  rows  of  plants  and  cutting  the  roots  about 
one  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Frequently  they 
seem  to  follow  in  mole  mines.  The  damage  done  by  gnawing 
is  conspicuous  in  plantations  of  locust  and  black  cherry.  In 
seed  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  mice  have 
done  enormous  damage  to  oaks  and  hickories.  Planted  locusts 
are  bitten-off  below  ground.  In  the  Biltmore  nurseries,  oak 
seed  beds  have  suffered  severely  by  the  mice  cutting  the  roots. 
Transplanted  white  pines  were  severely  decimated,  by  gird- 
ling, in  February,  1909. 

b. — Protective  measures. 
Avoid  autumn  sowing. 

Plant  seeils  broadcast  instead  of  planting  in  rills. 
Have  nurseries  far  from  grain  fields  and  from  abandoned  fields. 
Keep  deep  and  clean  pathways  between  the  beds.  Surround 
nurseries  by  deep  and  steep-walled  trenches.  Insert  pit  falls 
in  the  bottom  of  such  trenches.  Work  the  nurseries  contin- 
uously. Do  not  cover  the  nurseries  with  mould  or  moss  form- 
ing hiding  places. 

Keep  the  sedge  grasses  and  weeds  down  in  nurseries  and  re- 
generations, possibly  by  pasturing  with  cattle  and  sheep,  thus 
disturbing  the  mice  and  tramping  down  their  mines.  Burn 
abandoned  fields  before  planting. 

Pigs  admitted  to  the  woods  just  before  a  seed  year  destroy 
the  mice  whilst  preparing  the  soil  for  natural  regeneration. 
Protect  the  mouse-eaters,  especially  those  which  are  fond  of 
voles  as  owls,  crows,  fox,  o'possum,  cats. 

c. — Remedial  Measures. 

Kill  the  mice  by  trapping  or  poisoning.  In  this  latter  case, 
place  grains  of  wheat  poisoned  by  immersion  in  strychnine, 
arsenic  or  phosphorus  into  drain  pipes  so  as  to  check  the  possi- 
bility of  accidentally  poisoning  singing  birds  or  quail  at  the 
same  time.  Comp.  Farmers  bulletin  No.  369,  Biological  Survey. 
The  root  of  certain  Scylla  species,  chopped  into  sausages,  kills 
the  mice  by  causing  their  bladders  to  burst.  Gypsum  is  said 
to  have  a  similar  effect,  solidifying  in  the  stomach.  The  lat- 
ter remedies  are  not  injurious  to  the  mouse-eating  animals 
which  are  frequently  poisoned  by  catching  the  poLsoned  mice. 
The  vaccination  of  the  mice  with  the  so-called  "typhoid  dis- 
ease" has  not  been  sufficiently  successful  so  far. 


18  FOREST  PROTECTION 

d. — Treatment  of  injured  plants. 

Broad  leaved  seedlings  merely  chewed  above  ground  should 
be  clipped  back.  Oak  seedlings,  cut  off  below  groimd,  have 
been  successfully  transplanted  at  Biltmore  and  have  replaced 
the  lost  tap-root  by  a  multitude  of  rootlets. 

IV. — Ground  Hog  or  Wood  Chuck.  Dr.  Fernow  reports  that  his 
coniferous  nurseries  at  Axton  were  badly  plundered  by  woodchuck. 
After  Schaaf,  white  oak  saplings  are  peeled  by  woodchucks  up  to 
five  feet  from  the  ground,  near  fields.  Stomach  analysis  at  Bilt- 
more show  only  ferns. 

V. — Porcupine  or  Hedgehog.  It  peels  the  bark,  especially  that  of 
spruce,  basswood  and  hemlock,  close  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  pre- 
ferring saplings  up  to  5"  in  diameter. 

VI. — Beaver.  It  is  now  so  rare  that  the  damage  done  to  the  forest 
is  insignificant. 

C. — Protection  Against  Birds. 

I. — Grouse.  The  grouse  bite-off  buds  and  cotyledons,  and  eat  the 
fruit  of  certain  tree  species  (buds  of  birch,  maple,  cottonwood; 
seeds  of  red  cedar,  beech,  witch  hazel,  calmia  and  rhododendron). 
On  the  whole  the  damage  done  by  grouse  is  inconspicuous. 

II. — Wild  Turkey.  The  turkey  is  useful  by  eating  some  noxious  in- 
sects and  by  scratching  the  leaves,  thus  burying  certain  tree  seeds. 
At  Biltmore,  however,  on  Ducker  Mountains,  plantations  of  scarlet 
oak  acorns  have  been  practically  destroyed  by  the  turkey.  In 
forest  nurseries,  as  well,  the  turkey  is  apt  to  do  considerable  harm 
during  the  winter. 

III. — Pigeons   and   Doves.      Pigeons   live   during   spring   and   winter 
on  coniferous  seeds,  beech  nuts,  buds  and  cotyledons. 
Remedies  in  nurseries  are  lath  or  wire  screens  or  coverings  of  thorny 
branches.     Pigeons  may  be  shot  at  anise  licks. 

IV. — Crows  and  Bluejays.  These  birds  live  on  large  seeds  (acorns, 
beech  nuts,  chestnuts)  and  are  especially  dangerous  in  nurseries. 
They  plunder  the  nests  of  useful  birds.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
may  assist  the  forester  in  destroying  mice  and  noxious  insects; 
they  underplant  whole  forests  with  acorns,  beech  nuts,  hickory 
nuts  and  chestnuts. 

V. — Finches  and  Cross-bills.  The  damage  done  consists  in  the  de- 
struction of  seed  plantations  of  conifers  made  in  nurseries  or  in 
the  open.  It  occurs  during  the  spring  migration  of  the  birds  when 
they  appear  in  large  swarms. 

The  cotyledons  are  bitten  off  and  eaten  as  well  as  the  seeds.  Some 
cross-bills  split  the  scales  of  coniferous  cones  mto  two,  withdraw- 
ing the  seed  from  underneath  the  scales. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  19 

Protective  measures  are: 
Screens  of  wire  or  lath  over  nurserj'  becls.    The  mesh  must  be  fine, 
and  the  distance  between  the  lath  must  not  exceed  ^^  inch. 
Shooting  some  birds,  keeping  the  balance  scared  off. 
Coating  the  seeds  in  red  lead  (very  efficient),  one  pound  of  red 
lead  being  sufficient  to  cover  seven  pounds  of  coniferous  seeds. 
Shortening  the  period  of  exposure  by  planting  the  seeds  in  late 
spring  after  three  to  eight  days  mulching. 
VI. — Woodpeckers.    Woodpeckers  withdraw  the  larvae  of  wood  boring 
insects  from  their  mines  with  the  help  of  a  long,  tliin  tongue.    They 
withdraw  useful  as  well  as  harmful  insects.     They  do  damage  by 
opening  cones  and  by  eating  the  seeds  thereof. 
The  damage  done  by  picking  holes  into  the  cambium  layers  of 
certain  trees  is  small.     The  holes  made  in  soimd  yellow  poplars 
rather  denote  a  high  quality  than  the  presence  of  defective  tim- 
ber.    The  holes  made  in  oak  and  chestnuts  are  usually  made  in 
rotten  or  decaying  wood,  or  in  wood  of  no  commercial  value. 
There  exist  four  theories  attempting  to  explain  the  curious  girdles 
of  holes  made  by  the  woodpecker. 
a. — Incubator  Theory. 

Holes  are  picked  to  invite  the  ovipositing  of  insects  in  such  holes, 
b. — Napkin  Theo^^^ 

The  woodpecker  cleans  its  beak  from  particles  of  rosin. 
c. — Calendar  Theory. 

Due  to  observation  that  woodpecker  returns  at  regular  inter- 
vals to  same  tree. 
d. — Sap-sucking  Theory. 


20  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  5.    Protection  Against  Insects. 
A.     General  Remarks. 

I.  Insects  are  the  most  serious  animal  enemies  of  the  forest.  More 
than  that,  they  are  the  worst  enemies  of  the  forest  within 
organic  nature. 

But  in  a  certain  sense,  many  insects  seemingly  injurious,  are 
in  fact  beneficial,  since  they  form  one  of  the  means  by  which 
nature  selects  the  fittest  individuals  for  the  propagation  of 
our  trees. 

II.  Almost  all  of  the  orders  of  insects  contain  families,  some  or 
all  the  members  of  which  are  directly  beneficial.  These  bene- 
ficial forms  are  usually  zoophagous,  and  may  be — 

a.  Predaceous  insects  feeding  on  eggs,  larvae,  pupae,  or 
imagines  of  injurious  species,  notably — 

Order  Coleoptera:    Families  Coccinellidce,  Cicin- 

delidcE,  Carabidce,  Elateridce,  Cleridce,  Trogositidce, 

Colydiidoe. 

Order  Diptera:    Families  Asilidoe,  Syrphidoe. 

Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamily  F ormicoidea. 

Order  Hemiptera:    Family  Reduviidoe. 

Order  Orthoptera:     Family  Mantidoe. 

Many  Neuropteroid  insects.* 

i.      Parasitic  insects,  ovipositing  on  or  in  the  bodies  of 
injurious  species.     The  more  important  are — 
Order  Diptera:    Family  Tachinidoe. 
Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies  Ichneumon' 
oidea,  Proctotrypoidea,  Chalcidoidea. 

c.  Parasitic  insects,  paralyzing  their  prey  by  stinging,  and 
carrying  them  into  their  nests  where  the  eggs  of  the 
parasite  are  deposited. 

Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies  Sphegoidea, 

Vespoidea. 

Many  families  are  neither  injurious  nor  beneficial,  and  are  there- 
fore of  no  economic  importance.  Other  groups  which  may  be 
either  injurious  or  beneficial  to  man,  are  not  mentioned  here, 
because  they  bear  no  direct  relation  to  forest  trees.  Amongst 
the  phytophagovis  insects,  there  are  however,  very  many  forms 
that  are  injurious  to  our  forests.  Those  living  on  tree  weeds 
must,  of  course,  be  considered  as  beneficial;  but  speaking  gen- 

*The  old  order  Neuroptera,  has  been  divided  into  several  orders  in  modern  systems  of 
elassification.  The  group  as  a  whole  is  of  little  economic  importance  to  the  forester,  and 
for  that  reason,  the  inclusive  term,  Neuropteroid,  is  used. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  21 

erally,  phytophagous  insects  found  in  the  forests,  are  more  or 
less  injurious.  The  families  which  contain  most  of  the  injur- 
ious species  are — 

Order  Coleoptbra:  FamiHes  Cerambycidce,  Bu- 
prestidce,  Elateridce,  Ptinidce,  Scarabaeidce,  Chryso- 
melidce,  Curcidionidoe,  Brenthidoe,  Scolytidae. 
Order  Lepidoptera:  Families  Arctiidce,  Bomby- 
cidcB,  Cossidce,  Hesperidae,  Liparidce,  Noctuidce,  Pa- 
pilionidcE,  Zygaenidce. 

Order   Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies    Tenthredi- 
noidea,  Cynipoidea. 

Order  Hemiptera:     Families  Coccidce,  Aphididce, 
Cicadidce. 

Order  Diptera:     Families  Cecidomyiidce,  Syrph- 
idoe. 

Order  Orthoptera:     Families  Locustidce,   Phas- 
midoe. 

III.     Insects  are  divided  into  three  groups,  according  to  the  rela- 
tion that  exists  between  the  younger  stages  and  the  adults. 

a.  The  Ametabola,  which  includes  a  single  order,  the 
Thysaneura,  in  which  the  young  and  adults  differ 
only  in  size. 

b.  The  Hemimetabola,  in  which  are  included  the  Orthop- 
tera, the  Hemiptera,  etc.,  etc.  In  this  group  the 
young  and  adults  differ  not  only  in  size,  but  in  several 
other  characters,  and  the  young  become  more  and 
more  like  the  adults  after  each  molt. 

c.  The  Metabola,  in  which  are  included  the  Coleoptera, 
Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  etc.,  etc.  In 
this  group,  the  young  and  the  adults  are  totally  im- 
like,  and  before  taking  the  mature  form,  the  larvae  go 
through  a  resting  stage. 

The  first  stage  of  the  insect  is  the  egg,  and  after  hatch- 
ing, it  arrives  at  maturity  through  a  series  of  molts. 
On  hatching,  the  young  of  the  Metabola  are  called 
larvce  (caterpillars,  maggots,  grubs);  and  in  the  Ameta- 
bola and  Hemimetabola,  they  are  called  nymphs.  There 
are  several  molts  during  the  larval  or  nymphal  stage, 
and  the  period  between  any  two  of  them  is  called  an 
instar.  The  quiescent  stage  during  which  the  larvee 
of  the  Metabola  change  to  imagines,  is  called  the  pupa; 


22  FOREST  PROTECTION 

and  the  mature  or  reproductive  stage  of  all  insect3 
is  called  the  adult,  or  imago.  The  pupa  of  a  butterfly 
is  very  often  called  a  chrysalis,  and  the  silken  sack 
spun  by  many  insects  in  wliich  to  pupate,  is  the  co- 
coon. Larvse  of  Diptera  and  of  some  other  insects, 
pupate  within  a  tough  outer  covering  commonly  sup- 
posed to  be  simply  a  pupal  skin.  The  true  pupa  is, 
however,  entirely  within  it,  and  the  tough  outer  cover- 
ing is  distinguished  by  the  name  puparium.  After 
reaching  the  adult  stage,  the  insect  does  not  become 
any  larger,  and  does  not  molt;  its  only  function  is  to 
mate,  and  lay  eggs.  Some  species  are  unable  even  to 
feed  after  becoming  adult,  and  in  almost  all  cases,  the 
larvae  or  njanphs  are  much  more  voracious  than  the 
mature  insects.  In  general,  then,  the  greater  part  of 
the  insect  damage  to  our  forests  is  done  before  the  in- 
sects responsible  become  mature.  The  Ambrosia 
beetles  form  a  notable  exception  to  this  rule. 

The  siun  total  of  the  stages  of  development  of  an 
insect  is  termed  a  generation,  and  a  given  species  may 
be  single-brooded,  double-brooded,  treble-brooded,  etc., 
according  to  the  number  of  generations  which  occur 
during  a  single  year.  Many  insects  require  more  than 
a  single  j^ear  to  complete  a  generation,  and  are  then 
called  biennial,  triennial,  etc.  A  species  of  the  Cica- 
didae  is  known  to  have  a  life  round  of  seventeen  years. 

IV.  Climatic  and  Seasonal  Conditions  Affecting  Insect  Life. 
In  general,  the  number  of  species  of  insect  life  decreases  as 
altitude  or  latitude  increases,  while  at  the  same  time,  the  num- 
ber of  individuals  of  a  species  becomes  larger.  The  number 
of  generations  of  a  given  species  is  also  affected  by  the  climate; 
for  instance,  a  species  which  is  "double-brooded"  in  the  Mid- 
dle States,  may  become  "treble-brooded"  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  "single-brooded"  in  Canada. 

Insects  spend  the  winter  months  in  a  resting  or  hibernating 
stage  which  varies  for  the  different  species.  That  is,  a  given 
species  may  hibernate  either  in  the  egg,  larval,  pupal,  or  adult 
stage.  They  are  protected  against  the  cold  either  by  their 
own  coverings,  or  by  the  hiding  places  selected  by  them  in  the 
trees,  in  the  bark,  in  the  moss  and  leaves,  in  the  stumps,  or 
in  the  ground.  Extreme  cold  is  no  more  likely  to  injure  the 
insect  than  it  is  to  kill  the  tree  itself;  but  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  and  moisture,  especially  cold  wet  spells  in  late 
spring,  or  after  a  premature  thaw  has  drawn  the  hibernating 


FOREST  PROTECTION  23 

insects  from  their  winter  quarters,  may  be  disastrous  to  large 
numbers  of  certain  species,  particularly  during  the  molting 
periods  of  the  larvae. 

Insect  Plagues.  A  succession  of  favorable  springs,  free  from 
late  frosts  and  wet  spells,  is  apt  to  result  in  an  anomalous  mul- 
tiplication of  a  species.  Hence,  according  to  European  re- 
cords, insect  plagues,  like  successions  of  favorable  climatic 
conditions,  occur  and  recur  after  periodic  intervals.  The  ef- 
fects of  parasitism  however,  are  very  likely  to  be  confused  with 
climatic  effects  in  these  records,  and  too  much  dependance 
should  not  be  placed  on  them.  These  periodic  plagues  of  in- 
sects are  very  likely  to  occur  in  spite  of  all  himian  ingenuity. 
But  experience  teaches  us  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
nature  may  be  trusted  to  restore  the  balance  that  has  been 
so  disturbed.  An  abnormal  increase  in  the  niunbers  of  a  given 
species  not  only  is  likely  to  reduce  the  natural  food  supply  of 
such  a  species  so  that  many  individuals  will  die  of  starvation, 
but  the  parasitic  and  predaceous  enemies  of  the  species  also 
enormously  increase  in  nvjnbers,  being  encouraged  to  do  so 
by  the  abimdance  of  the  food  on  which  they  exist,  and  by  the 
ease  -nith  which  it  may  be  obtained.  For  the  same  reason, 
bacterial  and  fungous  diseases  have  a  better  opportunity  to 
spread  from  one  individual  to  another.  The  years  following 
an  insect  plague  are,  therefore,  very  likely  to  be  exceptionally 
free  from  the  particular  species  involved.  Consequently,  a 
plague  of  this  sort  usually  lasts  for  but  one  or  two  years,  al- 
though in  exceptional  cases  it  may  last  for  three  or  four  years. 
In  the  forest,  an  insect  plague,  in  which  several  species  are 
often  involved,  is  likely  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  a  destructive 
fire  or  storm,  or  of  an  attack  by  fungi.  In  any  case  where 
such  a  plague  has  swept  through  the  forest  the  dead  trees  should 
be  marketed  immediately  if  the  conditions  are  at  all  favorable. 
Otherwise  the  resulting  loss  will  be  much  more  serious. 

The  amount  of  damage  done  by  a  serious  outbreak  of  insects 
in  a  forest  ■will  depend  very  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  species 
involved.  If  the  species  is  "monophagous,"  that  is,  depen- 
dent for  its  food  supply  only  on  a  single  species  of  tree,  it  is 
likely  to  cause  serious  losses  only  in  localities  where  pure  stands 
of  the  particular  tree  occur,  or,  at  least,  where  the  trees  of 
that  species  are  not  so  scattered  through  the  forest  as  to  make 
it  difficult  for  the  adult  females  of  the  injurious  insect  to  find 
a  suitable  place  for  oviposition.  Polyphagous  insects,  on  the 
other  hand,  affect  many  host  trees;  and  while  they  are  likely 
to  distribute  their  injuries,  so  that  their  effect  on  the  forest 
is  less  noticeable,  still  the  ultimate  losses  extending  over  a 
period  of  years,  may  be  very  great.     A  species  imported  ac- 


24  FOREST  PROTECTION 

cidentally  from  one  country  to  another,  is  much  more  likely 
than  a  native  species  to  cause  serious  losses,  because  of  the 
absence  of  native  parasites  and  other  enemies  which  serve 
to  keep  it  in  check  in  its  original  habitat.  The  extensive 
ravages  of  the  Gipsy  Moth  in  Massachusetts,  which  have  lasted 
over  a  long  period  of  years,  is  without  precedent  in  European 
countries,  although  the  species  has  been  abundant  over  a 
large  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  probably  for  several 
centuries. 

It  may  be  that  insect  plagues  play  a  role  in  the  natural  change 
of  species  of  plants  coinciding  with  geological  periods,  but 
the  question  is  one  of  speculation,  not  demonstration. 

VI.  Species  of  Trees  Affected.  There  are  no  species  which 
are  not  liable  to  insect  attack,  but  some  are  much  less  sus- 
ceptible than  others.  Conifers  have,  on  the  whole,  less  re- 
cuperative powers  than  broad-leaved  species,  and  consequently 
succumb  much  more  readily  to  insect  attacks.  In  this  coun- 
try, the  spruces  and  pines,  wherever  occurring  in  pure  and 
even-aged  forests,  are  the  species  which  suffer  most. 

VII.  Condition  of  Trees  Affected.  We  may  divide  injurious 
insects  into  three  classes  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
trees  attacked. 

a.  Certain  species,  notable  those  that  feed  on  leaves 
and  pith,  usually  prefer  healthy  to  diseased  plants. 
They  may  either  kill  the  tree  outright  or  weaken  it 
to  such  an  extent  that  conditions  are  made  favor- 
able for  the  attacks  of — 

h.  species  which  generally  prefer  imhealthy  trees.  Or- 
dinarily these  species  never  attack  healthy  plants, 
but  in  years  of  plagues  they  may  be  forced  to  do  so. 
Thus  in  years  of  extreme  abundance,  millions  of 
bark-beetles  may  be  drowned  in  the  resin  of  healthy 
pines  before  the  trees  are  weakened  to  an  extent 
sufficient  to  allow  subsequent  millions  to  propagate 
the  species. 

c.  Certain  other  species  only  attack  the  trees  after  they 
have  been  killed.  Dead  timber,  either  standing  or 
on  the  ground,  should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible as  a  precaution  against  damage.  Decaying  logs 
and  stumps  are  always  found  infested  with  numerous 
species  of  insects  which  cannot  be  classed  as  injur- 
ious since  they  merely  hasten  the  process  of  decay. 
Those  insects  of  this  class  which  are  injurious  are 


FOREST  PROTECTION  25 

of  less  importance  to  the  forester  than  to  the  pur- 
chaser of  his  product.  Some  of  them  cause  serious 
losses  in  lumber  yards,  ship  yards,  bark  sheds,  fac- 
tories, etc. 

Insects  of  classes  "a"  and  "b"  above  are  sometimes  called 
"parasitic"  because  they  attack  living  plants,  as  distinguished 
from  those  of  class  "c,"  which  feed  only  on  dead  timber,  and 
are  called  "saprophytic."  The  term  "parasite,"  however,  is 
commonly  used  in  Entomology  to  denote  a  species  of  insect 
which  has  another  species  for  its  host,  and  the  student  should 
be  careful  in  his  reading  to  distinguish  between  the  broader 
and  narrower  uses  of  the  term. 

VIII.  Part  of  Tree  Attacked.  No  part  of  the  tree  is  entirely 
free  from  insect  injury.  According  to  species,  insects  may 
feed  upon  the  buds  (caterpillar  causing  the  fork  in  the  ash), 
the  leaves  (elm  leaf-beetle),  the  fruit  (chestnut  and  acorn 
weevils),  the  pith  (locust  shoot -borer),  the  cambium  (larvse 
of  the  so-called  bark-beetles),  the  heart-wood  (chestnut  borers), 
the  sap-wood  (many  of  the  longicorn  borers),  the  roots  (larvae 
of  May-beetles),  and  the  bark  (notably  tan-bark). 

IX.  Degree  of  Damage.  According  to  the  amount  of  damage 
done,  insects  may  be  classed  as  a,  Damaging  insects;  b,  Des- 
tructive insects,  and  c.  Pernicious  insects.  Insects  are  called 
physiologically  obnoxious  if  they  check  the  growth  or  propa- 
gation of  plants,  and  technically  obnoxious  if  they  destroy  or 
reduce  the  technical  value  without  checking  the  growth.  The 
Hemlock  bark-maggot  furnishes  a  good  example  of  the  last 
named  class. 


REMEDIES     AND     PREVENTIVES     IN     GENERAL     AGAINST 
INSECT    INJURY. 

I.  Select  the  proper  species  for  reproduction  on  a  given  soil. 

II.  Encourage  mixed  forests. 

III.  Avoid  large  continuous  clearings. 

IV.  Use  the  ranger  staff  in  controlling  the  insects. 

V.     Remove  the  weak  trees,  and  strengthen  the  remaining  indi- 
viduals by  means  of  thinnings. 

VI.     Protect  and  improve  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

VII,     Protect  the  forest  from  damage  by  storm,  sleet,  or  fire  in  the 
wake  of  which  insect  plagues  frequently  follow. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 

VIII.     Remove  or  poison  stumps  if  they  are  found  to  form  the  incu- 
bators or  food-objects  of  a  noxious  insect  during  one  of  its 


IX.     Peel  off  the  bark  where  logs  are  left  on  the  ground  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time. 

X.  Encourage  hog  pastures  in  the  case  of  certain  species  of  in- 
sects. With  other  species,  steep  walled  ditches  may  prevent 
the  enemy  from  spreading  in  nurseries  and  plantations. 

XI.     Protect  the  insectivorous  animals,  notably: — 

a.  Bats,  moles,  weasels,  foxes,  etc. 

h.  Woodpeckers,  tits,  owls,  etc. 

c.  Amphibia. 

d.  Spiders. 

e.  Centipedes,  millipedes,  etc. 

XII.     Collect  and  destroy  the  insect  in  that  stage  which  best  allows 
remedial  measures  to  be  taken. 

a.  Eggs  may  be  tarred  or  covered  with  creosote  when 
they  are  placed  in  masses  in  conspicuous  positions. 

h.  Larvae  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  food  plant 
with  arsenicals  or  other  stomach  poisons,  or  the  in- 
sects themselves  with  kerosene  or  other  contact  poi- 
sons; by  trapping  them  on  or  below  bands  of  burlap 
or  tree  tanglefoot;  by  the  use  of  trap  trees;  or  by 
burning  their  winter  quarters  or  the  object  (bark) 
forming  their  abode. 

c.  Pupaj  may  sometimes  be  collected  and  burned,  par- 
ticularly   when   the   insect   hibernates   in   this 


d.  Adults  may  be  beaten  off  the  bushes  during  the  early 
morning;  may  be  collected  during  the  hot  hours  of 
the  day  in  artificial  hiding  places;  or  may  be  caught 
by  means  of  pit-falls,  tanglefoot  or  burlap  rings,  trap 
trees,  or  electric  lights. 

The  selection  of  a  method  of  treatment  depends  not  only  upon 
the  species  of  insect  concerned,  but  upon  many  factors  enter- 
ing into  the  local  conditions.  In  general,  prevention  is  better 
than  the  application  of  a  remedj^  This  is  particularly  true 
in  the  present  status  of  American  forest  conditions;  and  the 
use  of  insecticides  is  only  profitable  in  rare  instances.  Indeed 
in  America  the  forester  ivill  frequently  be  prevented  from  adopt- 
ing any  measures  whatever,  remedial  or  preventive,  because  the 
cost  will  exceed  the  value  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived.     But  in  no 


FOREST  PROTECTION  27 

case  should  a  remedy  be  attempted  by  one  who  is  not  fully 
informed  as  to  the  life  history  and  food-habits  of  the  insect 
enemy,  and  with  the  remedy  to  be  used.  In  either  event 
more  damage  than  benefit  may  result.  For  instance,  trap- 
trees  may  often  be  successfully  used  against  certain  insect 
pests;  but  unless  destroyed  at  the  proper  time,  just  before 
the  emergence  of  the  adults,  the  numbers  of  the  enemy  will 
be  increased  rather  than  diminished.  The  advice  of  a  com- 
petent Forest  Entomologist  should  be  obtained  wherever  pos- 
sible. 


C.     INSECT  ANATOMY. 

I.     The  body  of  an  adult  insect  is  divided  into  three  regions. 

a.  The  head  consists  of  a  single  segment,  and  bears 
exteriorly  a  pair  of  antenna,  a  pair  of  compound  eyes, 
the  ocelli,  which  vary  in  number  and  are  often  absent, 
and  the  motdh  parts,  consisting  of  the  labrum,  two 
mandihles,  tv/o  maxilla;,  and  the  labium.  Maxillary 
and  labial  palpi  are  also  present,  sometimes  so  modi- 
fied however  as  to  be  not  easily  recognizable.  The 
difference  between  "biting"  and  "sucking"  mouth 
parts  is  important  both  in  classification  and  as  re- 
gards methods  of  treatment. 

h.  The  thorax  consists  of  three  segments,  the  prothorax, 
the  mesothorax,  and  the  metathorax.  Each  segment 
bears  a  pair  of  legs,  and  the  mesothorax  and  meta- 
thorax normally  bear  the  fore  and  hind  wings.  The 
legs  are  also  segmented,  the  joints  bearing  the  fol- 
lowing names:  The  segment  attached  to  the  thorax 
is  called  the  coxa,  then  come  in  order  the  trochanter 
(sometimes  made  up  of  two  short  segments),  the /ern-ur, 
the  tibia,  and  lastly  the  iarsxis  made  up  of  several 
segments  on  the  last  of  which  are  borne  the  claws. 
The  wings  are  composed  of  two  membranes  held  to- 
gether by  supporting  rods  called  veins,  or  nerves,  and 
are  sometimes  covered  with  hairs  or  scales.  In  the 
case  of  the  Coleoptera,  the  fore  wings  (Elytra)  are 
hard  and  leathery,  and  the  veins  are  absent. 

c.  The  abdomen  consists  of  several  segments,  some  or 
all  with  stigmata  or  breathing  pores.  The  external 
reproductive  organs  are  usually  borne  on  the  last  or 
anal  segment  of  the  abdomen.  In  certain  species 
an  ovipositor  (laying-tube),  or  a  saw-like  instrument 
assists  the  female  in  oviposition. 


28  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II.  The  Larva.  In  the  larvae  of  the  Metabola,  aa  in  the  adult 
insect,  the  first  segment  is  the  head,  the  next  three  make  up 
the  thorax,  and  the  remainder  of  the  body  is  called  the  abdo- 
men; but  the  three  regions  are  not  so  distinct  as  is  the  case 
with  the  imago.  The  mouth  parts  are  almost  always  for 
"biting,"  and  have  the  same  names  as  in  the  imago.  The 
spinnarets  of  certain  caterpillars,  situated  in  the  mouth,  are 
the  apertures  of  long  glands,  which  traverse  the  entire  body. 
If  present,  the  antenna  are  rudimentary.  If  legs  are  present, 
there  are  always  three  pairs,  situated  on  the  ventral  side  of 
the  thoracic  segments.  Sometimes  there  are  also  legs  on 
some  of  the  abdominal  segments,  but  these  are  more  prop- 
erly called  pro-legs,  and  are  not  segmented. 

III.  The  Nymph.  In  the  Ametabola  and  the  Hemimetabola,  the 
anatomy  of  the  younger  stages  is  similar  to  that  of  the  imago. 

IV.  The  Pupa.  The  pupa  is  called  carved  or  masked,  according 
to  the  ease  with  which  legs,  antennae,  mouth  parts,  etc.,  can 
be  distinguished  through  the  pupa  case.  The  outer  web  of 
silk  spun  for  protection  by  many  Lepidoptera  and  Hymen- 
OPTERA  is  called  the  cocoon. 

V.  The  Egg.  Insect  eggs  vary  greatly  in  form.  They  may  be 
cup-shaped  or  kidney-shaped,  crater-formed  or  mucronate, 
round,  oval,  or  canoe-shaped.     Very  rarely  they  are  stalked. 

VI.  Internal  Anatomy.  In  an  insect,  this  consists  of  a,  the 
Endoskeleton;  b,  Musculature;  c,  the  Digestive  System;  (oesopha- 
gus, crop,  proveutriculus,  stomach,  hind-gut,  salivary  and 
other  glands,  Malpighian  tubes,  etc.);  d,  the  Nervous  System, 
(brain,  suboesophageal  ganglion,  thoracic  and  abdominal  gang- 
lia, nerve  cord,  motor  and  sensory  nerves);  e,  the  Circulatory 
System,  (the  heart  and  blood);  /,  the  Respiratory  System, 
(stigmata  and  trachae  or  trachaeal-gills);  and  g,  the  Reproduc- 
tive Organs,  (ovaries,  ovarian  tubes,  and  oviduct  in  the  female; 
spermaries  and  vasa  deferentia  in  the  male). 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


29 


INSECT   FAMILIES   ARRANGED   ACCORDING   TO   FOOD   OBJECTS 
IN  THE  FOREST. 

Compare  Page  of 
Ent.  Bul.  No.  48 
I.  Infesting  the  Cambial  Bark. 

Bark  Beetles  Scolytidse  (excepting  Platypini,  larvae  and  adults) ...      0 

Flat  and  round          Buprestidse,  Cerambycidse  (mines  often  extending  into 
headed  borers:  wood  prior  to  pupation) 10 

Bark  weevils:  Curculionidse 10 

Powder  post 

beetles:  Ptinidse,  (in  peeled  tan  bark) 11 

II.  Infesting  the  Wood. 
Ambrosia  or 

timber  beetles:  Scolytidse  (larvae  and  adults) 10 

Wood-boring 

caterpillars:  Sesiidse 10 

True  woodboring 

beetle-grubs:  Lymexilonidse,  Brenthidse 10 

Bark  and  wood 

boring  grubs:  Curculionidse,  Cerambycidse,  Buprestidse 10 

Carpenter  worms:      Cossidse    11 

Horn  tails:  Siricidse    11 

Powder  post 

beetles:  Lyctidse,  Ptinidse,  Bostrichidse    (dead  wood  only).  .  .    11 

III.  Injuring  Leaves  or  Needles. 
True  Caterpillars 
and  measuring 

worms:  Lepidoptera  (practically  all  families  of  the  order).  .  .  11 

False  caterpillars  Tenthredinidse    12 

Leaf  beetles:  Chrysomelidse   12 

Gall  insects:  Cynipiila\  Cecidomyiidse,  Aphididse 12 

Plant  lice:  Aphididte,  Psyllidse 12 

Scale  insects:  Coccidse    12 

IV.  Infesting  Twigs. 
Twig  mining 

beetles:  Scolytidse,  Buprestidse,  Cerambycidae 12 

Twig  weevils:  Curculionidse 13 

Twig  caterpillars:  Tineida?,  Tortricidse 13 

Scale  insects :  Coccidse 13 

Plant  lice:  Aphidida? 13 

Gall  insects:  Cecidomyiidse  and  Cynipidse 13 

Cicadas:  Cicadidse    13 

V.  Infesting  Young  Seedlings  in  Nurseries. 

Cutworms:  Noctuidse 

Junebugs:  Scarabseidse 


30 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Click  beetle-larvte 

(Wire  worms)  Elateridjs 

Weevils:  Curculionidse 

Crickets:  Gryllidae 

Cicadas:  Cicadidse    

VI.  Infesting  Fruits  or  Seeds. 

Weevils:  Curculionidse 13 

Cone  and 

nut  worms:  Tortricidge,  Phycitidae 14 

Gall  flies:  Cynipidse   14 


FOREST  PROTECTION  31 

Means  of  Protection 


I.  PROTECTION    AGAINST    INSECTS    INFESTING    THE    C.IMBIAL 
BARK  OF  THE  TRUNK. 

A.  Against  Scolytid-e  (Bark  Beetles). 

(1)  Conduct  the  logging  operations  at  that  season  of  the  year  at  which 
the  logs  are  apt  to  become  infested;  and  after  infection,  remove  the  bark, 
entirely  or  partially;  or  move  the  logs  rapidly  to  water  or  mill.  In  other 
cases,  conduct  logging  at  that  season  at  which  the  debris  left  are  not  apt 
to  form  incubators  for  Scolytidse;  or  else  long  before  swarming  (e.  g.,  cut 
pine  at  Biltm.ore  in  early  winter,  to  avoid  Dendrodonus  frontalis).  Com- 
pare Agric.  Year  Book,  1902,  p.  275  for  D.  frontalis  and  p.  281  for  D.  pon- 


(2)  Girdle,  peel.  lodge,  fall  or  blaze  trap  trees  of  inviting  diameter, 
shape  and  position  prior  to  the  time  of  the  swarming  of  the  Scclytidse.  Com- 
pare Agric.  Year  Book,  1902,  p.  269.  Trap  trees  might  be  prepared  in  the 
district  to  be  logged  next.  Try  to  destroy  the  trapped  ScolvtidiB  without 
injury  to  the  Cleridse  and  their  allies. 

(3)  Remove  or  bm-n  logging  debris;  or  swamp  the  tree  tops  left,  thus 
creating  unfavorable  conditions  of  m.oisture.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to 
use  the  debris  as  traps.  Compare,  however,  Entom.  Bui.  No.  21,  p.  23,  for 
advice  to  leave  the  debris,  so  as  to  divert  predatory  Scolvtida-  from  sound 
trees  to  debris. 

(4)  Leave  all  trees  (also  trap  trees)  in  the  woods  which  prove  to  be 
incubators  for  Ichneumonids,  Braconid^,  Chalcididse.  Remove  the  outer 
bark  so  as  to  assist  ovipositing  Ichneumons  in  reaching  their  prey.  Intro- 
duce and  breed  parasites.     (Bui.  West  Va.  Agr.  Station,  p.  328.) 

(5)  Counteract  reckless  deadening  by  farmers  engaged  in  clearing  their 
fields. 

(6)  Adopt  proper  diameter  limit  in  logging  where  a  Scolytid  attacks 
only  trees  of  certain  diameter  classes.  Rem.ember,  e.  g.,  that  the  spruce 
having  under  10"  d.b.h.  is  safe  from  D.  piceaperda. 

(7)  Begin  logging  in  districts  recently  damaged  by  fire,  storm,  sleet. 

(8)  Remove  even  worthless  trees,  if  they  are  apt  to  act  as  incubators. 
Keep  in  mind,  on  the  other  hand,  that  trees  with  dead  cambium  are  not 
attacked  by  cambium  boring  Scolj-tidse. 

(9)  Flave  at  hand,  ready  for  use,  permanent  means  of  transportation 
so  as  to  be  able  to  operate  when  and  where  you  ought  to  operate;  particu- 
larly, when  and  where  timber   hegiyis  to  die. 

(10)  Conduct  thinnings  in  a  manner  and  at  a  time  counteracting  in- 
fection by  Scolv-tidcT.  Remove  dying  and  injured  (by  lightning)  trees, 
also  trees  weakened  in  vigor. 


32  FOREST  PROTECTION 

(11)  Watch  for  spider  webs  showing  saw  dust;  for  drops  of  rosin  (pitch 
tubes)  appearing  on  the  bark;  for  a  local  increase  of  woodpeckers  indicating 
an  increase  of  food  material;  for  a  slight  change  in  the  tint  of  the  pine-crowns. 

(12)  Apply  sprays  or  washes,  twice  or  thrice  per  season,  to  particu- 
larly valuable* trees  (Forest  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  56),  e.  g.,  lime  and  Paris  green, 
mixed  to  a  mass  of  light  green  color;  or  soft  soap,  adding  enough  washing 
soda  and  water  to  reduce  the  mixture  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paint; 
or  a  thick  wash  of  soap,  Paris  green  and  plaster  of  Paris;  or  a  mixture  of  one 
pint  of  carbolic  acid,  one  gallon  of  soft  soap  and  eight  gallons  of  soft  water. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  instead  of  Paris  green,  and  has  a  greater  in- 
secticidal  value. 

B.  Against  Bufrestid/e  and  Cerat\ibycid.e  (Flat-headed 
AND  Round-headed  Borers). 

(1)  Prepare  trap  trees,  or  use  trees  accidentally  injured  or  weakened 
as  such. 

(2)  Remove,  peel,  burn  or  immerse  in  water,  trees  in  weakened  con- 
dition. Begin  logging  in  districts  containing  such  trees  (e.  g.,  blowdowns, 
burns). 

(3)  Prevent  ground  fires  which  weaken  the  trees,  burst  their  bark  and 
render  them  liable  to  successful  attacks  by  Buprestids  and  Cerambycids. 
Try  to  retain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

(4)  Protect  insectivorous  animals  (compare  Bureau  of  Entomology 
Bulletin  No.  28,  p.  23.) 

(5)  Prevent  trees  left  in  the  course  of  logging  from  being  recklessly 
injured  by  axe,  by  felled  trees  striking  them.  etc. 

(6)  Where  you  remove  a  portion  only  of  the  trees  standing  in  the  woods, 
log  in  winter  (not  in  spring  and  summer). 


C.  Against  Curculionid.e  ("Bark  Weevils")- 

(1)  Remove  the  trees  which  appear  injured  by  axe,  lightning,  storm, 
sleet  or  the  fall  of  a  neighbor. 

(2)  Prepare  trap  trees,  and  destroy  the  brood  of  Curculionids  develop- 
ing therein  in  due  season. 

D.  Against  Ptinid.e. 

Mind  that  the  bark  is  safe  from  powderpost  beetles  for  two  years,  and 
do  not  store  any  tan  bark  for  more  than  two  years. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  33 

II.  PROTECTION   AGAINST  INSECTS   BORING   IN   WOOD 
AND  TIMBER. 

A.  Against  Scolytid.e  ("Ambrosia  Beetles")- 

(1)  Remove  infested  trees  or  logs  prior  to  swarming. 

(2)  Cut  low  stmiips,  or  poison  or  char  the  stimips. 

(3)  Rem.ove  bark  from  all  logs  liable  to  be  affected  or  throw  the  logs 
into  water.     Do  not  leave  in  the  woods  any  summer-felled  logs. 

(4)  Log  all  blow-downs  and  brules  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

(5)  Have  all  parts  of  the  woods  continuously  accessible  to  logging,  by 
establishing  permanent  means  of  transportation. 

(6)  Prevent  ruthless  deadening  by  farmers.  Girdle  cypress,  oak  and 
ash — preparatory  to  driving  or  rafting — after  the  swarming  season  of  the 
Scolytids. 

(7)  In  orchards  or  gardens,  coat  the  treetrunks  with  dendrolene;  spray 
th.eni  with  kerosene;  plug  the  holes  bored,  leave  a  nail  therein,  or  use  a  de- 
terrent wash  (compare  Bureau  of  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  46,  p.  66). 

(8)  Do  not  leave  any  logs  in  the  woods  or  in  the  log  yard  for  any  length 
of  time.     In  case  of  logging  in  spring  and  summer,  peel  off  the  bark. 


B.  Against  Lymexylonid.e  and  Brenthid.^. 

(1)  Reproduce  the  chestnut  from  seedlings,  not  from  sprouts.  Re- 
move dead  limbs  quickly,  and  cover  the  scar  with  tar. 

(2)  Prevent  the  bark  of  the  chestnut  from  being  injured  and  opened 
by  fires,  by  the  fall  of  neighboring  trees,  by  axe  wounds,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  scarify  a  number  of  trees  to  be  cut  and  removed  in 
the  course  of  your  operations  in  the  near  future.  Strip  off  the  bark  in  nar- 
row bands,  or  blaze  and  hack  through  it  as  high  as  the  axe  will  reach.  Do 
this  towards  the  time  when  the  chestnut  begins  to  bloom.  The  swarming 
insect  deposits  her  eggs  into  the  scars  made,  and  all  trees  thus  treated  act 
as  trap  trees': 

(3)  Do  not  leave  any  cord  wood  or  any  logs  of  chestnut  in  the  forest 
after  June  15,  so  as  to  remove  insects  contained  therein  before  hatching. 

(4)  Keep  the  forest  dense,  dark,  moist,  cool. 


C.  Against  Cerambycid.e  (Round-headed  Borers). 

(1)  Cut  in  summer  and  peel  the  bark  of  the  logs  cut;  or  remove  a  hor- 
izontal strip  of  tark  along  and  on  top  of  the  log.  The  moisture  gathering 
in  the  gutter  thus  made  prevents  the  grubs  from  developing. 

(2)  Log  rapidly  after  heavy  conflagrations,  blowdowms  cr  plagues  of 
bark  beetles.  Readiness  to  remove  dead  timber  minimizes  the  damage  by 
Cerambycids.  If  removal  is  impossible,  throw  the  logs  into  water,  char  or 
peel  them. 

(3)  For  shade  trees,  prevent  oviposition  by  a  wash  consisting  of  soap 
and  carbolic  acid  (compare  Report  N.  Y.  Forest,  Fish  and  Gam.e  Commis- 
sion, Vol.  IV,  p.  21).  The  borer-holes  might  be  stopped  with  putty  after 
inserting  a  little  carbon  bisulphide  (explosive). 


34  FOREST  PROTECTION 

D.  Against  Lyctid^,  Ptinid.e,  Bostrichid^e  (Powderpost  Beetles). 

(1)  Use  heartwood  sticks  for  sticking  in  lumber  piles. 

(2)  Do  not  dead  pile. 

(3)  Spray  piles  with  naphtaline  or  creoline-Pearson  three  times,  per 
season. 

(4)  Impregnate  all  sapwood  before  using  it. 

(5)  Keep  an  eye  on  all  parts  of  the  yard  continuously. 

(6)  Infested  pieces  of  timber  should  be  thoroughly  steamed,  or  im- 
pregnated, or  liberally  treated  with  gasoline,  kerosene,  crecline,  or  kept 
submerged  for  a  number  of  weeks  (compare  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circu- 
lar No.  55). 

III.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  LEAVES, 
NEEDLES  AND  BUDS. 

A.  Against  Lepidopterous  Caterpillars. 

(1)  Remove — possibly  by  fire — leaf  mould,  mosses,  brush  found  at 
bases  of  trees  where  such  material  forms  the  winter  quarters  for  the  insect. 

(2)  Apply  to  the  trees  bands  of  burlap,  10"  wide  (compare  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  99,  p.  20),  or  bands  of  "Tree  Tanglefoot";  in  the  latter  case 
either  after  the  removal  of  the  ross  on  the  tree,  or  on  a  sheet  of  oiled  paper 
fastened  round  the  tree.     Usually,  heavy  thinnings  precede  the  application. 

(3)  Burn  the  webs  of  web  worms. 

(4)  Moisten  egg  heaps  with  creosote  oil  (e.  g.,  for  tussock  moth).  Use 
a  steel  brush  to  destroy  the  eggs  by  rubbing. 

(5)  Spray  with  washes,  remembering,  that  the  underside  of  the  leaves 
must  be  sprayed  and  that  the  job  is  well  done  only  when  the  tree  drips.  A 
common  wash  consists  of  one  pound  of  Paris  green  and  one  pound  of  quick 
lime  dissolved  in  150  gallons  of  water.  An  excellent  wash  is  made  from 
arsenate  of  lime  which  adheres  long,  shows  its  presence  by  its  white  color 
and  is  harmless  to  the  leaves.  See  for  recipe,  also  for  description  of  power- 
spray.  New  York  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  IV.   report,  p.   10. 

(6)  Protect  insectivorous  birds,  snakes,  lizards,  toads. 

(7)  Confine  collected  caterpillars  as  closely  together  as  possible,  so  as 
to  breed  deadly  diseases  amongst  them  (e.  g.,  Empusa),  or  so  as  to  invite 
counter-plagues  (Microgaster,  Pimpla,  etc.) 

(8)  Catch  the  swarming  moths  by  exhaust  fans  placed  near  strong 
electric  lights. 

(9)  Allow  of  hog  pasture. 


B.  Against  Tenthredinid.e  (Nematus),  Aphidid^,  Coccid^, 

PsYLLIDvE. 

(1)  Use  of  soap  wash,  prepared  by  dissolving  soap  in  boiling  water, 
adding  kerosene  (New  York  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  IV.  re- 
port, p.  31);  or  arsenical  insecticides,  caustic  washes,  etc.,  (for  which  com- 
pare Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bui.  No.  7,  pp.  33,  37,  45,  51). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  35 

(2)  Protect  insectivorous  animals. 

(3)  Destroy  infested  plants  or,  in  the  case  of  Nematua   crichsonii,  in- 
fested woodlands. 


IV.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INFESTING  BRANCHES, 
TWIGS,  SHOOTS. 

A.  Against  Scolytid.e. 

(1)  Collect  and  burn  affected  shoots  before  the  larvae  begin  to  pupat* 
therein. 

(2)  Use  logging  debris  as  traps. 

(3)  Burn  logging  debris,  or  swamp  the  cro'W'ns  of  felled  trees. 


B.  Against  Curculionid.e  (Twig  Weevils). 

(1)  Avoid  logging  and  thinning  of  pinewoods  near  yoving  pines  in  the 
seedling  or  in  the  sapling  stage. 

(2)  Remove  the  top  shoots  of  white  pine  attacked  by  Pissodes  sirobi, 
and  keep  them  in  a  barrel  covered  with  netting,  in  the  nursery,  so  as  to  kill 
the  weevil  without  destroying  its  parasites. 

(3)  Remove,  char,  peel  or  poison  fresh  pine  stumps. 

(4)  Apply  to  the  terminal  shoots  of  white  pine,  during  April  or  May, 
a  spray  consisting  of  fish  oil  soap,  Paris  green  and  carbolic  acid  diluted  in 
water  (Bureau  of  Forestrj-,  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  59). 

(5)  Use  trap  trees  for  oviposition,  consisting  of  fresh-cut  pine  billets 
buried  obliquely  with  one  end  protruding  above  groimd.  Burn  these  traps 
after  the  eggs  have  hatched. 

(6)  Collect  the  adults  underneath  large  pieces  of  fresh  pine  bark  placed 
on  the  ground.  The  adults  spend  the  hot  hours  of  the  day  underneath  the 
bark  attracted  bv  the  smell  of  rosin. 


C.  Against  CERAiiBYCiDiE. 

(1)  Collect  limbs  broken  off  by  wind  and  infested  by  Elaphidion  (Oak 
pruner). 

(2)  Cut  off  shoots  or  saplings  affected  by  larvte. 


D.  Against  Tineid.e  and  ToRTRiciDiE. 

(1)  Remove  infested  shoots. 

(2)  Apply  insecticides. 

E.  Against  Cicadid^b. 

(1)  Collect  larvae. 

(2)  Protect  crows  and  owls. 


36  FOREST  PROTECTION 

V.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SEEDLINGS 
IN  NURSERIES. 

A.  Against  Curculionid^. 

(1)  Do  not  leave  any  pine  stumps  in  or  near  nurseries. 

(2)  Raise  healthy  transplants,  on  well-manured  soil. 

(3)  Collect  adults  under  bark  traps,  and  collect  larvae  on  billets  buried 
obliquely. 


B.  Against  ScARABji;iD^  (  June  Bugs). 

(1)  Collect  adults  in  early  morning  from  bushes. 

(2)  Cultivate  four  or  five  times  that  section  of  the  nursery  which  is 
lying  fallow. 

(3)  Protect  insectivorous  birds. 

(4)  Trap  the  larvse  beneath  reversed  sods  of  grass. 

(5)  Separate  the  beds  by  deep  trenches. 

(6)  Irrigate  freely — if  possible,  raising  the  water  in  the  trenches  from 
time  to  time  to  the  level  of  the  beds. 

(7)  Cultivate   the   beds   heavily    and   frequently,   particularly   during 
the  winter  months. 


C.  Against  Noctuid^e  (Cut  Worms). 

(1)  Catch  adu.ts  at  night  with  svigared  apples. 

(2)  Poison  caterpillars  with  cabbage  sprinkled  with  arsenic  and  laid 
along  the  nursery  beds. 

(3)  Irritate  caterpillars  by  continuous  cultivation  of  soil. 


D.  Against  Cicadid.e. 

Do  not  keep  any  broad-leaved  trees  or  bushes  in  or  near  the  nursery 
on  which  the  eggs  might  be  deposited.  Injection  of  bisulphide  of  carbon 
into  soil  is  recommended  by  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bui.  No.  14,  p.  111. 


E.  Against  Gryllid.e  (Crickets). 

(1)  Protect  moles,  crows,  etc. 

(2)  Keep  deep  trenches  between  the  beds,  and  use  short  beds. 

(3)  Insert  earthenware  pots  at  the  intersection  of  trenches. 

(4)  Propagate  a  fungus  disease  (Empusa  Grylli)  for  which  see  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  Bull.  No.  38,  p.  53. 

(5)  Plow  the  beds  deeply  before  using  them. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  37 

VI.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INFESTING  FRUITS  OR  SEEDS, 

I.  E.,  AGAINST  CURCULIONID^,  TORTRI- 

CIDiE,  PHYCITIDiE. 

(1)  When  wintering  chestnuts  or  acorns,  store  them  in  the  natural 
way,  not  allowing  the  seeds  to  become  dry.     See  lectures  on  Sylviculture. 

(2)  Plant  seeds  as  soon  as  possible  after  collecting. 


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FOREST  PROTECTION 


REFERENCE  LIST 

Compiled  by  F.  D.  Couden  and  C.  A.  Schenck 
The  following  pages  will  refer  the  student  to  publications,  most  of  which 
should  be  in  the  library  of  the  up-to-date  forester,  where  accounts,  more 
or  less  complete,  of  certain  species  of  insects  injurious  to  forest  and  shade 
trees  may  be  found.  The  list  is  by  no  means  complete,  and  it  is  very  likely 
that  a  few  even  of  the  important  species  have  been  omitted.  The  study 
of  Forest  Entomology  is  still  in  its  infancy;  but  the  literature,  while  not 
yet  volmninous,  is  so  scattered  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  for  the  pre- 
sent purpose  to  go  through  it  with  a  fine-toothed  comb.  A  great  many 
errors  will  vmdoubtedly  be  noticed  by  Entomologists,  particularly  as  to 
synonymy;  but  it  is  hoped,  nevertheless,  that  the  list  will  be  of  some  value 
to  the  students  of  Forestry  for  whom  it  is  designed. 

The  arrangement  is  faulty  in  that  many  polyphagous  species  of  insects 
are  not  listed  imder  all  of  their  host  trees.  Porthetria  dispar,  for  instance, 
is  listed  only  mider  Quercus,  whereas  the  caterpillars  of  the  Gipsy  Moth 
feed  indiscriminately  on  the  foilage  of  almost  any  tree  within  their  range. 
The  use  of  the  "index,"  however,  will  enable  the  student  to  find  the  refer- 
ences to  any  insect  listed,  without  regard  to  the  host  under  which  the  re- 
ference is  given. 

Here  follow  the  complete  titles  of  all  the  publications  used  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  list.  The  abbreviations  used  in  the  list  proper  are  printed 
here  in  Black-Faced  Type,  and  are  followed  by  the  titles,  names  of  authors' 
and  years  of  publication. 

UNITED  STATES  PUBLICATIONS 

5th  Rapt.  Ent.  Com.  U.  S.  Fifth  Report  of  the  United  States  Entomolog- 
ical Commission.  Insects  injurious  to  forest  and  shade  trees.  By 
A.  S.  Packard.     1890. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1895  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1895.  The  Shade  Tree  insect  problem  in  the  eastern 
United  States.     By  L.  O.  Howard,     pp.  361-384.     1896. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1902  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1902.  Some  of  the  principal  insect  enemies  of  coni- 
ferous forests  in  the  United  States.  By  A.  D.  Hopkins,  pp.  265-282. 
1903. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1903  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1903.  Insects  injurious  to  hardwood  forest  trees. 
By  A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  313-328.     1904. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1904  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1904.  Insect  injuries  to  forest  products.  By  A.  D. 
Hopkins,  pp.  381-398.  The  nut  weevils.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden, 
pp.  299-310.     1905. 


40  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1905  U.  S. — Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 

of   Agriculture   for   1905.     Insect   enemies   of  forest   reproduction.     By 

A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  i-iii  and  2.49-256.     1906. 
Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1907  U.  S. — Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture  for  1907.     Notable  depredations  by  forest  insects.     By 

A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  i-iii  and  149-164.     1908. 

Bulletins  of  the  Bureau   (Formerly   Division)   of   Entomology, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  7  U.  S. — Some  miscellaneous  results  of  the  work  of  the  Di- 
vision of  Entomology.  The  ambrosia  beetles  of  the  United  States. 
By  H.  G.  Hubbard,  pp.  9-30.  Insect  injuries  to  chestnut  and  pine 
trees  in  Virginia  and  neighboring  states.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden,  pp. 
67-75.     1897. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  14  U.  S.— The  Periodical  Cicada.     By  C.  L.  Marlatt.     1898. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  21  U.  S. — Preliminary  report  on  the  insect  enemies  of  forests 
in  the  Northwest.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1899. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  28  U.  S. — Insect  enemies  of  the  spruce  in  the  Northwest.  By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1901. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  32  U.  S.— Insect  enemies  of  pine  in  the  Black  Hills.  By  A.  D. 
Hopkins.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  37  U.  S. — Proceedings  of  the  fourteenth  annual  meeting  of 
the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists.  On  the  study  of  forest 
entomology  in  America.     By  A.   D.   Hopkins,     pp.   5-32.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  38  U.  S. — Some  miscellaneous  results  of  the  work  of  the  Di- 
vision of  Entomology.  Notes  on  the  Rhinocerus  Beetle.  By  F.  H. 
Chittenden,     pp.  28-32.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  48  U.  S. — Catalogue  of  exhibits  of  insect  enemies  of  forest 
products  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1904. 
By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1904. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  53  U.  S. — Catalogue  of  the  exhibit  of  Economic  Entomology 
at  the  Lewis  and  Clrak  Centennial  Exposition,  Portland,  Oregon,  1905. 
By  Rolla  P.  Currie.     1904. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  56  U.  S.— The  Black  Hills  Beetle.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1905. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  58  U.  S. — Some  insects  injurious  to  forests.  Parts  I,  II,  and 
III.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins  and  J.  L.  Webb.     1906-07. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  71  U.  S.— The  Periodical  Cicada.     By  C.  L.  Martlatt.     1907. 

Circulars  of  the  Bureau  (Formerly  Division)  of  Entomology  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  24  U.  S.— The  Two-lined  Chestnut  Borer.  By  F.  H.  Chitten- 
den.    1897. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  29  U.  S.— The  Fruit-tree  Bark-beetle.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden- 
1898. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  41 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  55  U.  S. — Powder-post  injury  to  seasoned  wood  products.  By 
F.  H.  Chittenden.     1903. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  82  U.  S. — Pinhole  injury  to  girdled  cypress  in  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  States.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  83  U.  S. — The  Locust  Borer,  and  methods  for  its  control.  By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  90  U.  S.— The  White-pine  Weevil.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent,  Cir.  No.  96  U.  S.— The  Catalpa  Sphinx.  By  L.  O.  Howard  and  F.  H. 
Chittenden.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  97  U.  S.— The  Bagworni.  By  L.  O.  Howard  and  F.  H.  Chit- 
tenden.    1908. 

Bulletins   of  the   Forest   Service    (Formerly   Bureau   of   Forestry) 

OF  THE  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
For.  Bui.  No.  22  U.  S,— The  White  Pme.     Insect  enemies  of .     By 

F.  H.  Chittenden,     pp.  55-61.     1899. 
For.  Bui.  No.  31  U.  S.— The  Western  Hemlock.     Insects  of  the .     By 

A.   D.  Hopkins,     pp.  16-21.     1902. 
For.  Bui.  No.  38  U.  S.— The  Redwood.     Insects  of  the .     By  A.  D. 

Hopkins,     pp.  32-40.     1903. 
For.  Bui.  No.  46  U.  S. — The  Basket  Willow.     Insects  injurious  to . 

By  F.  H.  Chittenden,     pp.  63-80.     1904. 

Other  Publications  of  the  United  States  Dep.vrtment  of  Agriculture. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  99  U.  S. — Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  99.     Three  insect  enemies 

of  shade  trees.     By  L.  O.  Howard.     1899. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  264  U.  S.— Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  264.     The  Brown-tail  Moth, 

and  how  to  control  it.     By  L.  O.  Howard.     1906. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  265  U.  S.— Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  265.     The  Gipsy  Moth,  and 

how  to   control  it.     By  L.   O.    Howard.     1907. 
F'ld.  Pr'g'm.  F'st.  S'ce.-April,  1907,  U.  S.— Field  Programme  of  the  Forest 

Service  for  April,  1907. 

STATE  PUBLICATIONS. 
New  Jersey. 
Geol.  Rept.  for  1SS9.  N.  J.— .\iinual  Report  of  the  State  Geologist  of  New 
Jersey  for  the   year   1899.     Part   III.     Report  on  Forests.     The   role 
of  insects  in  the  forest.     By  J.  B.  Smith,     pp.  205-232.     1899. 
New  York. 
G'de.  L'fl't.  No.  16  A.  M.  N.  H.— Guide  Leaflet  No.  16,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History.     The  insect  galls  of  the  vicmity  of  New  York  City 
By  William  Beutenmuller.     1904. 
Ex.   Sta.   Bui.   No.   233   Cornell. — Cornell   University.     Agricultural   Experi- 
ment  Station  of  the  College  of  Agriculture.     Bulletin  No.   233.     De- 
partment of  Entomology.     Saw-fly  leaf-miners  on  European  elms  and 
alders.     By  M.  V.  Slingerland.     1905. 


42  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Ex.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  234  Cornell.— Cornell  University.  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  of  the  College  of  Agriculture.  Bulletin  No.  234.  De- 
partment of  Entomology.  The  Bronze  Birch-borer.  By  M.  V.  Slinger- 
land.     1906. 

For.  Rept.  No.  4  N.  Y. — Fourth  annual  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Fish- 
eries, Game,  and  Forests  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Report  for  1898. 
Insects  injurious  to  maple  trees.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     pp.  367-395.     1899. 

For.  Rept.  No.  7  N.  Y. — Seventh  annual  report  of  the  Forest,  Fish,  and  Game 
Commission  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Report  for  1901.  Insects 
affecting  forest  trees.     By  E.   P.  Felt.     pp.  479-534.     1902. 

St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  53  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.  53.  (En- 
tomology 14).  17th  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist  on  injurious 
and  other  insects  of  the  State  of  New  York.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     1901. 

St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  103  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Musemii  Bulletin  No.  103. 
(Entomology  25).  The  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths.  By  E.  P.  Felt, 
1906. 

St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  109  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.  109. 
(Entomology  27).  White-marked  Tussock-moth  and  Elm  Leaf-beetle. 
By  E.  P.  Felt.     1907. 

St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  110  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.  110. 
(Entomology  28).  22nd  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist  on  injur- 
ious and  other  insects  of  the  state  of  New  York.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     1907 

St.  Mus.  Mem.  No.  8  N.  Y. — New  York  State  Museum  Memoir  8.  2  vol- 
umes. Insects  affecting  park  and  woodland  trees.  By  E.  P.  Felt. 
1905-06. 

Ohio. 

Ins.  Bui.  No.  7  Ohio. — Ohio  Department  of  Agriculture.     Division  of  Nur- 
sery and   Orchard   Inspection.     Bulletin   No.   7.     The   insects  affecting 
the  black  locust  and  hardy  catalpa.     By  E.  C.  Cotton.     1905. 
Pennsylvania. 

For.  Rept.   1901-02  Penn. — Statement   of  work  done  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Department  of  Forestry  during  1901   and   1902.     1902. 
West  Virginia. 

Ex.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  35  W.  Va.— Bulletin  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  No.  35.  Defects  in  wood  caused  by  insects.  By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1894. 

Ex.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  56  W.  Va.— Bulletin  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  No.  56.  Report  on  investigations  to  determine 
the  cause  of  unhealthy  conditions  of  the  spruce  and  pine  from  1880 
to  1893.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1899. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PUBLICATIONS. 

Comstock's  Manual. — Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.  By  J.  H.  Corn- 
stock.     1895. 

Ratzeburg  Vol.  III. — Die  Forst-Insecten,  volume  III.  By  J.  C.  Ratzeburg. 
Berlin,  1844. 

The  Forester  for  1901. — The  Forester.  A  periodical  published  by  the  Amer- 
ican Forestry  Association  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


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05 


■•■ 

Damage  to  Populus  spp.  by  Hymenoptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 
suffeking 

Literary  References 

Family 

For.  Bui. 
No.  46 

U.S. 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 

N.  Y. 

Janus 

integer  Nort 

ventralis  Say 

Twigs 

Leaves 

68 
70 

302 
322 

Pteronus 

Damage  to  Alnus  glutinosa  by  Hymenoptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 

Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Ex.  Sta.  Bui. 
No.  233 
Cornell 

Tenthredinidae 

Kaliosphinga.., 

dohrnii  Tischb 

Leaves 

58 

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Genos 

Species 

Parts 
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Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.    L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

carycecola  O.  S 

holotricha  0.  S 

tubicolaO.  S 

Leaves 

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Leaves 

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26 
27 

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Family 

5th   Rept. 

Ent.  Com. 

U.  S. 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.M.    N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

niveipila  O.  S 

pilulcB  Walsh 

poculum  0.  S 

Leaves 

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206"" 

31 
30 
30 

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era 

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Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidse 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

liriodendri  0.  S... 
tulipiferaO.  S 

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Leaves 

25 
25 

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by  Diptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 

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Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

clavula  Beuten... 

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by  Dipt 

era 

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Literary  References 

Family 

5th   Rept. 

Ent.  Com. 

U.S. 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Mycetophilidae 

Sciara 

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Leaves 

411 

33 

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103 


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Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.  Kept. 

for  1899 

N.J. 

Coccidse 

? 

Twigs 

210 

Damage  to  Hicoria  spp.  by  Hemiptera 


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Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.  Rept. 

for  1899 

N.J. 

Guide  Leaflet 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

St.  Mus.  Mem- 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

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Phylloxera. 
Lecanium— 

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sp 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 
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210 

38 

331 

Coccidae 

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Suffering 

LiTER.'^RY  References 

F.^ILY 

5th   Rept. 

Ent.  Com. 

U.  S. 

Com- 
stock'a 
Manual 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Aphididae 

Pemphigus 

tessdlaius  Fitch. - 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 

1637 

1161 

195 

lAs  Schizoneura  tessellata. 

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Species 

Parts 
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Literary  References 

F.AJUILY 

Com- 
stock's 
Manual 

Aphididae 

Schizoneura 

itnbricator  Fitch... 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 

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104 


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Literary  References 

Family 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

AphldidsB 

Coccidae 

Callipterus 

Schizoneura 

Colopha 

Chionaspis 

Gossyparia 

ulmifolii  Monell-- 
americana  Riley.. 
ulmicola  Fitch 

americana  Johns.. 
spuria  Mod 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Bole  &  Twigs 
Bole  &  Twigs 

176 
177 
186 

207 
203 

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by  Hemiptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.   Rept. 

for  1899 

N.J. 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Coccidse 

Eulecanium 

tulipifercB  Cook... 

Twigs 

1210 

208 

'As  Lecanium 

^^^ 


K  a 


»  e  8  (u  ^'v 


11 


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llisrs 


^    ^a,»^ft,a,fl. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


107 


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by  Isoptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Ag.Yr.Bk. 

lor  1904 

U.S. 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

TermitidsB--- 

Leucotermes 

flavipes  KoU 

seas'n'd  wood 

1389 

187 

lAs  Termes. 

Damage  to  Various  Conifers  by  Orthoptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Liter.\ry  References 

Family 

For.  Rept. 

No.  7 
N.  Y. 

Corn- 
stock's 
Manual 

GiyUidae 

Gryllotalpa 

Gryllus 

Oecanthus 

borealis  Burm. 

Rts.  nurse'ies 
Rts.  nurse'ies 
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'512' 

117 
117 

lis 

pini  Beut 

108 


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FOREST  PROTECTION  109 


CHAPTER  III:    PROTECTION  AGAINST  PLANTS. 


Par.  6.    Protection  Against  Weeds. 

Weeds    are    plants,  herbaceous    or    lignaceous    in    character,  the  pre- 
sence of  which  in  the  woods  is  financially  undesirable. 

A .  Influencing  Factors. 

I.  A  plant  may  appear  as  a  weed  in  one  locality  whilst 
it  is  useful  in  another.  Kalmia,  e.  g.,  is  useful 
on  steep  slopes  by  holding  the  soil;  whilst  it  is 
harmful  on  areas  in  regeneration.  Grasses  and 
herbaceous  weeds  are  valuable  on  forest  pas- 
tures; they  may  interfere,  however,  with  natural 
regeneration  from  seeds. 

II.  A  plant  may  be  considered  as  a  weed  at  a  certain 
stage  of  certain  sylvicultural  operations.  This 
is  the  case  with  black  gum,  witch  hazel,  box 
elder,  halesia  which  forms  a  superstructure  in- 
terfering with  the  regeneration  of  yellow  poplar, 
chestnut,  and  yellow  pine.  On  the  other  hand, 
these  same  species  may  be  valuable  as  an  un- 
dergrowth or  as  a  companion  growth  with  yel- 
low poplar,  chestnut,  pine  and  oak  after  the 
thicket  stage. 

III.  A  plant  of  a  usually  valuable  kind  may  be  classed 
as  a  weed  when  it  is  hopelessly  deformed;  e.  g., 
decrepit,  hollow,  burned  chestnuts;  fire  shoots 
of  hickory  and  oak. 

Thus  the  forester  might  distinguish  between  "ab- 
solute weeds,"  which  are  always  damaging,  and 
"relative  weeds,"  which  are  damaging  only 
under  a  given  set  of  conditions. 

B.  Most  weeds  injure  the  forest  only  indirectly.     Direct  damage  is 

done  by  parasitic  weeds,  in  rare  cases.    The  most  note-worthy 
cases  of  indirect  injury  are  the  following: 

I.  Smilax,  grapevine,  blackberry  interfere  with  the 
transportation  of  wood  goods  and  with  the  ease 
of  access  to  the  woods. 

II.  Sedge  grass,  heather,  blueberry  form  a  matting  through 
which  water  or  air  cannot  pass. 


LIO  FOREST  PROTECTION 

III.  The  mineral  fertility  of  the  soil  is  absorbed  by  the 

weeds  (especially  the  fruiting  weeds)  competing 
with  the  trees  for  a  food  supply. 

IV.  The  weeds,  notably  those  produced  after  fires,  inter- 

fere with  the  natural  regeneration  of  the  best 
species  of  the  forest;  they  prevent,  through  dense 
shade,  the  lignification  of  the  valuable  seed- 
lings during  summer.  Instances  are:  Chinqua- 
pin and  gum  in  the  case  of  yellow  pine  regener- 
ation at  Biltmore;  witch  hazel,  dogwood  in  yel- 
low poplar  regeneration  in  Pisgah  forest;  black 
jack  oak  in  long  leaf  pine  forests. 
V.  Some  weeds  distort  and  oppress  the  seedlings  and 
saplings  after  climbing  to  their  tops.  Grape- 
vine on  yellow  poplar;  Convolvulus  on  many 
tree  seedlings.  In  tropical  countries,  the  tree 
climbers  (sometimes  parasitic)  are  particularly 
troublesome,  notably  in  felling  trees. 
VI.  Certain  weed  species  (notably  Ericacoe)  produce, 
through  their  leaf  fall,  an  unfavorable,  dusty 
humus. 
VII.     Weeds  harbor  and  hide  mice  and  damaging  insects. 

VIII.     Dead  weeds  increase  the  danger  of  fires,   especially 
in  the  spring. 

IX.  The  dead  mould  spread  on  the  ground  by  many  weeds 
prevents  the  germinating  seed  of  valuable  species 
from  sending  its  rootlets  into  the  mineral  soil. 
X.  Certain  weeds  play  an  important  part  in  the  path- 
ology of  the  trees,  the  weeds  acting  as  hosts 
for  the  second  generation  of  certain  fungi. 
C.     Means  of  Protection. 

I.     Preventive  measures. 

a.  Maintain  a  complete  cover  overhead — 

a  pious  wish  in  the  primeval  forests. 

b.  Underplant  light  demanding  species  with 

shade  bearers  at  a  time  at  which 
the  leaf  canopy  overhead,  through 
friction  of  crown  against  crown,  be- 
comes excessively  open — another 
pious  wish  under  the  present  con- 
ditions confronting  American  silvi- 
cultiu-e. 

c.  Work   towards   immediate   reforestation 

after  making  a  clean  sweep  of  the 
old  crop. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  111 

d.  Insist  on  thorough  protection  against 
ground  fires  which,  above  all,  foster 
the  growth  of  weeds  and  are  in- 
jurious to  the  nobility  amongst  the 
forest  species.  Kalmia,  chinquapin, 
alder,  soft  maple,  gum,  halesia  ob- 
tain the  upper  hand  in  the  forest 
through  fires.  On  fertile  soil  the 
growth  of  annual  and  biennial  weeds 
after  fires  is  especially  luxuriant.  In 
the  Adirondacks,  the  reforestation 
of  fire-swept  tracts  is  handicapped 
by  the  excessive  growth  of  forest 
weeds. 

6.  Admit  for  pasture  cattle,  hogs,  sheep 
and  goats,  thus  checking  at  the 
same   time   the   danger   from   fires. 

II.     Restrictive  Measures. 

a.  Cut  (with  a  mowing  scythe)  herbaceous 

weeds  before  the  seed  ripens. 

b.  In  forest  plantations,  cultivate  the  rows 

of  plants,  or  raise  farm  crops  to- 
gether with  seedlings. 

c.  Plow  abandoned  fields  thorouglhy  before 

reforestation. 

d.  Crush  blackberry  briars;  decapitate  ferns; 

skin  thorns;  deaden  gum,  dogwood, 
maple,  beech;  remove  the  bark  for 
2  ft.  above  the  stump  on  cotton- 
woods  to  prevent  the  growth  of  root 
suckers. 

e.  Cover  the  stumps  of  undesirable  hard- 

woods with  dirt  or  brush;  poison  the 
stumps;  peel  the  stumps  down  into 
the  roots;  set  fire  to  brush  heaps 
massed  upon  such  stumps  in  cop- 
pice woods. 
D.    Weed  Species. 

I.  Andromeda,  huckleljerry,  etc.,  are  expelled  by  the 
continued  use  of  a  briar  scji^he,  preferably  in 
early  August.  Valuable  seedlings  are  planted 
on  reversed  sods  when  placed  in  thickets  formed 
by  the  above  species. 


112  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II.  Kalmia  and  Rhododendron  may  be  checked  by  burn- 
ing. They  sprout  luxuriantly  after  such  burn- 
ing. They  do  not  catch  up,  however,  with  the 
more  rapid  development  of  the  seedlings  planted 
at  the  same  time.  In  other  cases,  it  is  better 
to  allow  ivy  and  laurel  to  grow  unharmed.  The 
stems  when  over  4"  in  diameter  can  be  dead- 
ened readily. 

III.  Chinquapin    may   be   deadened    with   crushing   tongs 

in  spring. 

IV.  Dogwood  may  be  deadened.     Dogwood  sprouts  grow 

vigorously  from   the  stumps;   hence  it  will   not 
suffice  to  cut  the  dogwood  with  an  axe. 
V.     Large  trees  of  black  gum  are  skinned  or  deadened. 

It  is  impossible  to  get   rid  of  small  shoots. 
VI.     Hazel,  Vaccinium  and  Azalea  on  mountain  pastures 
can  be  checked  by  the  use  of  a  colter,  by  re- 
peated mowings  or,  possibly,  by  pasturing  goats. 
VII.     Blackberry  is  expelled  by  crushing  its  shoots  or  by 

skinning  them  between  two  pieces  of  timber. 
VIII.     Ferns  should  be  decapitated  in   early  spring. 
IX.     Climbers  {Clematis,  Vitis,  Ampelopsis  and  others)  are 
checked  by  cutting  close  to  the  ground. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  113 

Par.  7.    Protection  Against  Fungi. 

The  diseases  of  our  American  trees  caused  by  fungi  have  been  studied  by 
Dr.  Hermann  von  Schrenk,  of  the  Shaw  School  of  Botany.  Still,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  our  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  trees  induced  by  cryp- 
togamic  parasites  is  deficient  or  inadequate.  In  the  forest,  obviously,  the 
present  conditions  confronting  forestry  do  not  allow  of  "tree  doctoring." 
Nurseries  and  young  plantations  in  which  fungi  may  cause  enormous  dam- 
age are  practically  absent  from  our  forests.  Fungi  directly  causing  the 
death  of  trees,  of  over  12  inches   d.b.h.,   are  practically    imknown. 

Saplings  and  poles  killed  by  fungi  die  from  below,  whilst  those  killed 
by  insects  die  from  above. 

A.  Effect  of  Fungus  Infection. 

Observations  in  the  United  States  are  at  hand  only  with  re- 
ference to  fungi  of  a  technically  damaging  character. 

Such  fungi  may  cause: — 

I.     Disintegration    of   lignin,    leaving   the   shining    white 
fibres  of  cellulose  untouched. 

II.     Disintegration    of    cellulose   leaving   a   brittle   brown 
mass  resembling  charcoal. 

III.  Disintegration    of    entire    cell    walls,    leaving    a   hole 

or  holes. 

IV.  Liquification    of    the    rosin    incrustating    the    heart- 

wood,  in  which  case  the  rosin  exudes  at  branch 
holes  where  it  solidifies  by  oxidation,  forming 
knots,  galls  or  streaks  of  rosin. 

B.  Parts  of  Tree  Infected;  and  Methods  of  Infection. 

Fungi  may  attack  the  heartwood,  or  the  sapwood,  or 
both  heartwood  and  sapwood.  Heartwood  fungi  (which  never 
kill  a  tree  directly)  enter  through  insect  mines;  through  axe 
scars;  through  branch  stubs  having  heartwood,  or  through 
tops  broken  off  by  snow,  by  sleet,  by  falling  neighbors  or  by 
storm.  For  the  latter  reason,  diseased  timber  prevails  fre- 
quently along  wind  swept  ridges  and  shores. 

Sapwood  fungi  may  use  the  same  channels  of  access,  or 
may  enter  the  wood  through  lightning  streaks  and  through 
fire  clefts.  Sapwood  resists  the  attack  of  fungi  much  better 
than  heartwood  as  long  as  the  tree  lives.  The  sapwood  is  the 
life  zone  of  the  tree  in  which  it  defends  itself  readUy,  by  thick- 
ening its  cell  walls  or  by  cell  wall  incrustations,  or  by  form- 
ing cork  against  the  spread  of  hyphse. 

In  dead  trees,  on  the  other  hand,  sapwood  decomposes 
much  more  readily  than  heartwood  owuig  to  the  absence  of 

F 


114  FOREST  PROTECTION 

incrustating  substances  and  owing  to  the  presence  of  more 
moisture,  more  starch  and  more  albumen. 

The  insects  co-operate  with  the  fungi  to  an  unknown  ex- 
tent. Corky  bark  being  fvmgus-proof,  many  spores  enter  the 
galleries  of  boring  insects  either  carried  by  the  wind  or  car- 
ried in  the  "fur"  of  borers  and  enemies  of  borers.  It  might 
be  stated  that  the  insects  distribute  spores  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  which  the  birds  or  the  rodents  distribute  seeds.  A  par- 
ticidarly  interesting  case  is  that  of  "Ambrosia,"  a  fungus 
supposed  to  be  raised  by  the  Ambrosia  beetles.  Cyllene  ro- 
biniaj  makes  possible  the  inroads  of  Polyporus  rimosus.  Dis- 
coloration of  the  sapwood  coincides  with  the  attacks  of  Den- 
droctonus  frontalis  and  follows  the  "steamships"  in  oak  lum- 
ber.    A  fungus-lawn  is  found  in  the  mines  of  Lymexylon. 

Infection  is  performed 

(a)  most  frequently  by  spores, 

1.  in  dew  or  rain  (notably — the  lower  fungi); 

2.  by  wind  (notably — the  higher  fungi); 

3.  by  insects  (rarely,  after  Tubeuf); 

4.  by  forcible  ejection  of  spores  from  sporocarps,  asci 
and  sporangia. 

(b)  more  rarely  by  mycelium, 

1.  notably  when  the  mycelium  lives  in  the  earth,  or  rather 
in  the  roots  (Trametes  radiciperda,  Agaricus  melleus  "  (Rhizo- 
morphs)"; 

2.  also  above  ground,  the  mycelium  spreading  from  plant 
to  plant   {Trichosphceria,  Herpotrichia). 

Many  fungi  appear  immediately  after  the  affection  of 
the  tree  by  other  detrimental  influences  (e.  g.  after  insects, 
fire,  storm,  drought),  so  that  it  is  possible  to  decide  upon  the 
immediate  cause  of  damage  inflicted  only  by  the  test  of  arti- 
ficial infection.  The  fungi  found  present  upon  a  dead  tree 
can  never  be  considered,  eo  ipso,  as  tree  killers. 

In  many  cases  the  mycelium  of  the  tree  killer  has  dis- 
appeared when  the  tree  is  dead;  and  only  sporocarps  may  be 
still  present.  Many  parasites  on  the  other  hand  develop 
sporocarps  only  saprophytically  on  a  dead  substratum. 

Certain  timber  fungi  stop  work  at  once  when  the  tree  is 
cut,  e.  g.,  the  yellow  rot  fungus  of  black  locust  and  the  peck- 
iness  fungus  of  bald  cypress.  The  progress  of  decay,  in  such 
cases,  ends  with  the  death  of  the  tree. 

The  speed  at  which  a  fungus  disease  spreads  from  a  given 
point  of  attack  is  entirely  unknown.  This  speed  is  very  fast 
in  the  case  of  saprophytes  working  in  dead  sapwood;  it  is  prob- 
ably very  slow  in  the  case  of  parasitic  fungi  attacking  the 
heartwood  of  grown  trees. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  115 

The  tales  of  cruisers  to  the  effect  that  a  tract  will  "be- 
come punky  in  ten  to  fifteen  years"  do  not  seem  to  deserve 
any  credit. 

An  old  tree  is,  ceteris  -paribus,   more  readily  affected,  and 
more  apt  to  be  found  affected  by  disease,  than  a  young  one. 
Beneficial  Fungi. 

The  symbiosis  of  certain  fungi  with  certain  trees  (dis- 
covered by  Frank)  seems  to  be  beneficial  to  both;  possibly 
essential  to  both. 

Many  of  our  trees  and  shrubs  are  dependent  upon  cer- 
tain fungi,  at  least  for  such  foods  as  are  derived  from  humus. 
These  fungi  consist  of  delicate,  cobwebby  threads  such  as 
are  seen  on  mouldy  bread.  These  threads  spread  through 
the  soil  and  either  enter  the  outer  cells  of  the  root  or  simply 
form  a  mantle  (Mycorrhiza)  about  the  root.  The  fungi  live 
upon  decaying  animal  and  plant  matter,  and  transfer  a  por- 
tion of  this  food  to  the  root  and  doubtless  secure  in  return 
certain  benefits  from  the  root.  This  mutual  helpful  relation- 
ship of  two  plants  is  termed  commensalism. 

The  majority  of  our  heaths,  evergreens,  poplars,  willows, 
beeches  and  oaks  have  become  dependent  upon  these  fungi 
and  do  not  thrive  in  soils  where  the  fungi  are  not  found. 

Some  herbaceous  plants,  like  the  Indian-pipe,  have  be- 
come entirely  dependent  upon  these  fmigi  for  food  and  have, 
as   a   consequence,   lost   all   their  chlorophyll. 

This    field    of   forest    ecological   study    is   practically    im- 
touched,  though  it  will  form  the  basis  of  future  silviculture. 
Certain  fungi  might  be  used,  technologically,  for  the  prepar- 
ation of  pure  cellulose. 
Signs  of  disease. 

The  signs  of  disease  are  visible  only  on  a  tree,  usually, 
when  it  is  too  late  to  save  the  patient. 

These  signs  are: — 

A.  Hypertrophical  swellings,  f.i.,  knots  on  Spanish  oak 

and  timiors  on  yellow  pine  at  Biltmore. 

B.  Exudations  of  rosin  in  galls  or  in  seams. 

C.  Appearance  of  sporophores,  which  are  rare  in  some 

species,  but  are  frequently  seen  on  diseased  red 
oak,  locust,  and  ash.  When  decaying  holes  ap- 
pear on  a  tree,  the  forester  is  apt  to  find  the 
whole  tree  diseased.  Yellow  poplar  trees  are 
sound  within  one  foot,  and  white  oak  logs  are 
sound  within  two  feet  from  the  actual  end  of 
a  cavity. 


116  FOREST  PROTECTION 

The  tree  weeds,  e.  g.,  Halesia  (Mohrodendron),  gum  and 
calmia,  might  be  exterminated  in  days  to  come  with  the  help 
of  their  fungus  enemies. 
E.    Synopsis  of  the  orders  of  damaging  fungi. 

I.     Order  Phxjcomycetes.     Family  Peronosporece. 

The  myceliimi  is  unicellular.  The  propa- 
gation is  effected  by  numerous  branching  hyphse 
forming  at  their  tips  little  sacs  or  sporangia  in 
clusters  or  chains  (conidia).  These  are  carried 
by  wind  to  other  plants  where  they  germinate 
at  once,  forming  a  tube  that  penetrates  the  leaf. 
If  the  leaf  is  wet,  the  contents  of  the  sporangia 
break  up  into  a  number  of  zoospores  which  de- 
velop the  characteristic  hyphse  of  the  fungi. 
Sexual  reproduction  occurs  in  most  species  and 
consists  of  a  gametangia  cut  off  from  the  ends 
of  the  hyphge  and  fertilized  by  male  gametes 
developed  on  branches  (antheridia)  of  the  game- 
tangia bearing  hyphse.  The  resulting  thick  walled 
gametospore  tides  the  fimgus  over  winter. 

American  representatives  are  not  fully  known. 
Some  bad  nursery  fungi  belong  to  this  family 
(notably  Phytophtora  omnivora). 
II.     Order  Ascomycetes. 

1st.      Family — Pyrenomycetes. 

Flask-shaped  frutifications  (peri- 
thecia)  are  characteristic  of  this  fam- 
ily. Within  the  perithecia,  which  are 
open  at  the  top  (angiocarpous),  occur 
numerous  asci,  each  containing  eight 
spores.  Preceeding  the  formation  of 
perithecia,  conidiospores  are  usually 
formed  which  are  especially  efficaci- 
ous in  disseminating  the  fungi.  Ex- 
amples:   Nectria  on  maple  and  beech. 

2nd.     Family- — Discomycetes. 

Distinguished  by  open  gjannocar- 
pous  apothecia  (cup-shaped  recepta- 
cles, bearing  freely  exposed  asci). 

The  Discomycetes  are  unimportant 
for  the  American  forester,  none  being 
observed  as  damaging  our  trees.  Rhy- 
tisma  acerinvm  frequently  forms  large 
black  incrustations  of  pseudo-paren- 
chyma on  the  leaves  of  maple,  conidia 
developing  in  the  summer  and  mature 


FOREST  PROTECTION  117 

apothecia    in    the    succeeding    spring. 
The  most  important  representative  of 
this  family  in  Europe  is  Peziza. 
III.     Order  Basidiomycetes. 

Spores  carried  on  basidia  of  definite  shape 
and  size,  and  bearing  a  fixed  number  of  spores. 

1st.       Family — Uredinece. 

All  are  injurious  parasites,  the 
mycelium  being  in  the  intercellular 
spaces  of  the  tissues  (particularly  in 
the  leaves)  of  higher  plants.  These 
fungi  change  their  hostplants,  showing 
a  double  generation,  and  develop  sev- 
eral kinds  of  asexual  spores,  according 
to  the  season  and  to  the  host;  aecidio- 
spores  and  pycnoconidia  in  spring; 
uredospores  in  summer;  teleutospores 
in  autumn,  which  in  the  following 
spruig  develop  basidiospores.  The  my- 
celium from  the  basidiospores  enters 
the  first  host  and  develops  the  seci- 
dium  stage  (formerly  the  genus  Ae- 
cidium)  with  a>cidia  and  pycnidia.  The 
next  stage  on  a  different  host  develops 
the  uredospores  (formerly  genus  Ure- 
do),  and  in  autumn  the  thick  walled 
teleutospores. 

2nd.     Family — Hymenomycetes. 

Basidia  imbedded  in  a  common 
hymenium  which  clothes,  in  Agari- 
cacecB,  a  series  of  radial  lamellae  on  the 
under  side  of  the  pileus,  and  in  Poly- 
poracece  and  Boletaceoe,  the  iimer  sur- 
face of  pores. 

In  a  few  genera  no  distinctive 
fructifications  are  formed  (Exobasi- 
dium  vaccina,  parasitic  and  causing 
hypertrophy  on  Ericacece). 

Another  arrangement  of  the  orders 
and  families  of  fungi  might  be  made 
with  reference  to  pathogeny: 
a.  The  groups 

Uredinece  1 

UstilaginecB  contain  parasites  only, 

(so-called  "Smuts")  I  so    that    no    proof    of 

PeronosporecB  I  parasitism  is  required. 

Exoascece  \ 

(witch  broom)  J 


118  FOREST  PROTECTION 

b.  The  groups 

Pyrenomycetes 

Discomycetes  !  contain     parasites 

Hymenomycetes  V   well  as  saprophytes  so 

Myxomycetes  f  that    proof   of    parasi- 

And   several  groupsV  tism  is  required. 

of   lower   fungi   and] 

bacteria. 

This  proof  is  obtained  by  artificial  infection  only. 

Infection  reveals, — 

(1)  parasitic  nature  of  a  fungus, 

(2)  exact  species  of  fungus, 

(3)  relationship  of  heteroecious  Uredinece  and 

their  host  plants  (uredinal,  telial  and 
secidial  stages), 

(4)  various  forms  of  reproductive  organs, 

(5)  conditions  favorable  to  attacks. 

The  fungi  might  be  further  divided  into  two 
large  groups,  namely: 

(a)  Physiologically  obnoxious  species  (tree  killers 

and  tree  deformers)  belonging  to  the 
orders  Phycomycetes  and  Ascomycetes  and 
to  the  family  Uredinece  of  the  order 
Basidiomycetes. 

(b)  Technically   obnoxious   species    (wood   disin- 

tegrators) belonging  notably  to  the  fam- 
ily Hymenomycetes;  this  group  may  be 
sub-divided  into  fungi  living  on  dead 
trees  (Saprophytes)  and  fungi  living  on 
live  trees  (Parasites). 

Group  (a)  is  of  greatest  importance 
in  Germany  and  France;  whilst  group 
(b)  is  of  greatest  importance  in  tha 
United  States. 

F.     According  to  parts  attacked,  the  forest  fungi  might  be  subdivided 
as  follows: 

I.     Nursery  fungi  and  plantation  fimgi. 
II.     Root  fungi  in  saplings  and  poles. 

III.  Leaf  and  twig  fungi.     (Bulletin  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 

dustry No.  149,  page  18). 

IV.  Fungi     causing     hypertrophical     formations     (witch 

brooms). 
V.     Fvmgi  discoloring  lumber  or  timber. 
VI.     Fungi  destroying  the  cambium  and  the  sapwood  of 
standing  trees  or  poles. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  119 

VII.     Fungi  destroying  the  sapwood  of  dead  trees  and  of  logs. 
VIII.     Fungi  destroying  the  heartwood  in  living  trees. 
IX.     Fungi  destroying  timber,  ties,  poles  and  posts  after 
manufacture  and  whilst  in  use. 

G.  Fungus  species  worthy  of  note  which  are  physiologically  obnoxious. 
I.  Agaricus  melleus  (honey  fungus)  is  a  champignon 
attacking  and  killing  conifers  four  to  fifteen 
years  old.  White  pine  suffers  very  badly.  The 
disease  spreads  underground  through  the  so- 
called  rhizomorpha  (strong  threads  of  mycel- 
ium). The  soil  at  the  basis  of  affected  plants 
is  charged  with  exuded  rosin.  Comp.  Bull.  Plant 
Industry,  No.  149,  page  23. 
II.  Aecidium  pini  attacks  the  needles  and  the  young 
bark  of  pine  saplings.  The  spores  enter  by  a 
woimd  and  the  spread  of  the  mycelium  in  the 
cambium  causes  hypertrophical  formations,  es- 
pecially on  the  main  stem.  The  teleutosporous 
generation  has  a  Senecio  species  for  its  host 
{Coleosporium  senecionis) . 

III.  Peridermium    cerebrum    (family    Uredinece)    kills    two 

year  old  lodgepole  pines  as  well  as  other  pines. 
(Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  200). 

IV.  Peridermium  strobi,  known  as  the  blister  of  the  white 

pine,  has  Pinus  cembra  for  its  original  host. 
Whilst  it  does  not  injure  this  species  seriously, 
its  attacks  are  deadly  to  our  white  pine  during 
its  juvenile  stage.  In  old  trees  well  protected 
by  heavy  bark,  the  tops  and  branches  alone  are 
affected.  The  disease  is  frequent  abroad;  and 
stringent  measures  should  prevent  it  from  en- 
tering into  the  United  States.  The  uredal  form 
of  the  fungus  {Cronartium  ribicolum)  forms  blotches 
on  the  leaves  of  the  currant  (Ribes).  Compare 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  July,  1909,  p.  232. 
V.  A  Gymnosporangium  causes  the  "Cedar  apples"  of 
red  cedar;  see  Bull.  21,  Div.  of  Pathology,  p.  8. 
For.  Bull.  31  (Red  Cedar)  p.  25. 
VI.  Hysterium  pinastri  causes  the  shedding  disease  dreaded 
in  nurseries.  Pine  seedlings  up  to  four  years 
old  drop  the  needles  of  a  sudden  in  spring.  White 
pine  is  little  affected;  strong  seedlings  are  im- 
mvme.  The  disease  spreads  through  old  needles 
on  which  the  fungus  lives  saprophytically.  Not 
observed  in  America  so  far. 


120  FOREST  PROTECTION 

VII.     Diaporthe   parasitica    (discovered   by   Dr.    Murrill)    is 
the    worst    treekilling    disease    yet    described    in 
the  United  States.     It  tends  to  exterminate  the 
chestnut  trees  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  and 
is  spreading  southward.       Entering  the   cambial 
layers  of  the  tree  and  notably  those  of  its  branches 
without    the    requirement    of  preceding  wounds, 
the  mycelium  actually  "girdles"  the  living  trees 
(W.  A.  Murrill,   in   Jour.  N.  Y.  Bot.   Garden  7: 
143-153;  Bull.   No.   149,  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try, p.  22). 
VIII.     Hypoderma  sirobicola  is  the   "needle  blight"  of  the 
white  pine  and  appears  to  be  a  dangerous  para- 
site on  Pinus  Strobus.     Compare  Tubeuf's  "Dis- 
eases of  Plants,"  english  edition  by  W.  G.  Smith, 
p.    233.      Tubeuf   claims   that    the   disease   may 
devastate  whole  tracts  of  forests.     A  disease  of 
the  white  pine  similar  to  that  described  by  Tubeuf 
has  been   reported  from   Massachusetts   (various 
articles  in  Woodland  and  Roadside),  from  Wes- 
tern North  Carolina  and  from  eastern  Tennessee, 
and  is  being  studied  by  the  pathological  divis- 
ions of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Compare 
Circular  No.  35,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
IX.     "  Damping-off "  is  a  disease  of  seedlings  soon  after 
germination    dreaded    by    all    nurserymen,    and 
decimatmg  many  natural  regenerations  (birch!). 
The  fungi  causing  the  disease  are  undescribed. 
H.    Fungus  species  worthy  of  note  which  are  technically  obnoxious. 
The  genus  Polyporus  (including  Trametes,  Fomes,  Boletus, 
Polystictus,    and   Daidalea)    is   responsible   for   the   decomposi- 
tion  of  heartwood  in  living  trees  frequently  brought   about 
by  the  help  of  an  enzym. 

Overaged  timber  is  almost  invariably  attacked  by  Poly- 
porus. The  sporophores  may  appear  in  branch  holes  or  scars, 
and  are,  although  the  disease  might  be  common,  rare  in  many 
species. 

Most  noteworthy  are  the  following  Polypori: — 
I.  Polyporus  annosus  (or  Trametes  radiciperda),  a  root 
fungus  of  conifers,  attacks  pole  woods.  Sporo- 
phores imder  gromid  in  roots.  Wood  turns  brown 
to  begin  with  and  is  finally  hollowed  out.  (Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.  207). 
II.  Trametes  pini  causes  the  heartwood  rot  (known  as 
"red  heart")  of  pine;  the  punkiness  and  per- 
haps the  ring  cracks  of  fir,  long  leaf,  short  leaf, 


FOREST  PROTECTION  121 

and  sugar  pines;  the  speckled  rot  or  red  heart 
of  Douglas  fir;  the  cork  of  western  hemlock. 
It  is  found  only  in  trees  over  forty  years  old, 
usually  more  in  the  top  of  the  tree, — but  in 
Pinus  monticola  close  to  the  gound.  The  wood 
never  rots  out  entirely  and  the  absence  of  cavi- 
ties is  characteristic  of  this  fungus.  It  enters 
through  branch  stubs  containing  heartwood. 
Reference  Bull.  For.  33,  p.  15;  F.  &  I.  1902, 
p.  62;  Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  plate  XXII.  and 
XXIV.  and  page  206. 

III.  Polyporus  juniperinus  creates  long  holes  coated  white 

in  the  heartwood  of  red  cedar.  (For.  Bull.  31, 
p.  25;  Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  208;  Bull.  21 
of  Div.  of  Vegetable  Pathology). 

IV.  Polyporus  car7ieus   causes  the   red   rot   of  red  cedar 

and  of  arbor  vitae.  The  wood  splits  into  small 
cubes,  charcoal  like.  (Bull.  21  of  Div.  of  Vege- 
table Physiology  and  Pathology;  For.  Bull.  21, 
p.  26). 
V.  Polyporus  versicolor  causes  the  soft  rot  of  live  catalpa, 
Polyporus  catalpce  the  brown  rot  of  the  species; 
Bull.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  page  47 
and  pp.  53  to  56;  Bull.  37  of  Bureau  of  Forestry, 
pp.  51-58;  also  in  oak  and  hemlock  and  beech 
(For.  Bull.  51,  p.  31)  as  a  saprophyte  on  ties. 
VI.  Polyporus  rimosus  causes  the  yellow  rot  of  black 
locust,  in  its  heartwood.  Holes  made  by  locust 
borers  (Cyllene  rohinioE)  serve  as  entrances. 
(Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  207);  Contr.  Shaw 
School  of  Botany,  No.  17;  Bureau  Plant  Indus- 
try Bull.  No.  149,  p.  45. 
VII.  Pohjporus  schweinitzii  causes  the  "butt  rot,"  "ground 
rot"  or  "root  rot"  of  all  conifers,  notably  of 
Douglas  fir  and  hemlock.  Fungus  enters  at  the 
base  of  the  tree  through  insect  mines.  Trees 
die  in  patches;  sporophores  are  short-lived. 
(Bull.  For.  33,  p.  15;  F.  &  I.  1902,  p.  61;  Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.p  203  and  206,  and  plate 
XXIV). 
VIII.  Polyporus  fraxinophilus  occurs  in  white  ash  having 
over  seven  inches  d.b.h.  The  hyphae  seem  to 
enter  by  the  water  niches  left  by  broken  branches. 
Wood  becomes  straw  colored.  Very  frequent. 
Reference  Bull.  32  and  Bull.  149,  page  46,  of 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


122 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


IX.  Polyporus  7iigricans  attacks  beech,  birch  and  poplar 
in  the  New  England  States  causing  standing 
timber  to  rot.  (Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  207; 
Bulletin  Bureau  Plant  Industry  No.  149,  p.  42). 
X.  Polyporus  sulfureus  causes  the  brown  rot  of  many- 
conifers,  also  of  oak,  walnut  and  cherry.  (Bull. 
Bureau  Plant  Industry  No.  149,  page  37;  Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.  207). 

XI.  Polyporus  igniarius  occurs  everywhere  on  beech  and 
oak.  (Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  207;  Bulletin 
Bureau  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  pp.  25  to  37). 
XII.  Polyporus  libocedris  causes  the  peckiness  of  bald 
cypress  and  the  pin  rot  of  incense  cedar.  The 
pecks  consist  of  disconnected  holes  (or  pockets) 
about  4"  long  ending  abruptly  and  partially 
filled  with  brown  powder.  Found  in  trees  over 
100  years  old.  Reference:  Contr.  Shaw  School 
of  Botany,  No.  14. 

XIII.  Polyporus  pinicola.    Western  conifers,  four  years  after 

death,  are  found  entirely  destroyed  by  Poly- 
porus pinicola.  Reference:  F.  &  I.,  1902,  p.  60; 
Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  pp.  202  and  209  and 
plate  XXV. 

XIV.  Polyporus  ohtusus  is  a  common  cause  of  the  sap  rot 

in  dead  oak  trees  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, p.  41). 
XV.  Polyporus  fulvus  causes  the  so-called  "red  heart" 
of  the  birch  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
p.  47). 
XVI.  Polyporus  squamosus  causes  "white  rot"  in  various 
hardwood  trees,  e.  g.  maple,  oak,  beech,  birch 
and  ash.     (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  p.  48). 

XVII.  Polyporus  pergamenus  causes  the  "sap  rot"  of  trees 

and  logs — often  after  fires— in  many  hardwoods 
(notably  oak);  its  work  is  particularly  quick,  and 
so  is  the  rapidity  of  its  fruiting  (Bull.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  p.  56). 

XVIII.  Polyporus  betulinus   and   fomentarixis    may    parasiti- 

cally  weaken  living  birches  and  beeches  (Mayr), 
or  may  be  satisfied  to  cause  the  decomposition 
of  weakened  and  of  dead  wood  (Von  Schrenk). 
(Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  p.  49). 
XIX.  Polyporus  applanatus  is  reported  as  the  killer  (?)  of 
cottonwoods  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
No.  149,  p.  58). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  123 

XX.  Polyporus  ponderosus  n.  sp.,  described  in  detail  by 
H.  von  Schrenk  in  Bull.  36  of  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  p.  37  f.f.g.,  causes  the  red  rot  of  Pinus 
ponderosa  killed  by  insect  pests  at  the  lapse  of 
two  years.  The  fungus  is  a  saprophyte  closely 
resembling  Polyporus  pinicola. 
Aside  of  the  Polypori,  the  following  technically  obnoxious  fungi 
deserve  attention. 

I.  Lenzites  sepiaria  is  a  saprophyt  preying  on  hemlock, 
long  leaf  and  short  leaf  pine — notably  on  rail- 
road ties.  (Reference  For.  Bull.  51). 
II.  Schizophyllum  commune  attacks  railroad  ties  of  short 
leaf  pine,  hemlock,  etc.  saprophytically.  (Ref. 
For.  Bull.  51). 

III.  Unnamed  fungus,  the  sporophores  of  which  are  im- 

known,  attacks  Sequoia  sempervirens  and  causes 
"brown  rot"  (or  "butt  rot"  or  "pin  rot"),  the 
decay  beginning  in  the  inner  rings  of  heartwood 
near  the  ground.  The  fibre  is  converted  into 
pockets,  usually  twice  as  broad  as  long,  filled 
with  dark  brown  matter.  (Reference:  For.  Bull. 
38,  pp.  29-31,  and  plates  X.  and  XI). 

IV.  Ceratostomella   (Sphoeria)  pilifera,  a  saprophyt   of  the 

family  Discomycetes,  causes  the  bluing  of  sap- 
wood  in  the  lumber  and  in  the  dead  boles  (killed 
by  Dendrodonus)  of  Pinus  ponderosa.  This  fungus 
does  not  interfere  with  the  strength  of  the  tim- 
ber; it  decreases  its  fissibility — a  disadvantage 
in  cutting  of  railroad  ties.  The  spores  seem  to 
enter  through  the  ladder  mines  made  by  the 
Ambrosia  beetles — but  do  not  seem  to  develop 
into  Ambrosia.  Reference:  Bull.  36,  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  entire. 

"The  bluing"  of  the  sap  wood  in  logs  and 
lumber  is  disastrous  notably  to  the  value  of 
poplar  logs  driven  or  rafted  to  destination  dur- 
ing spring  and  summer,  of  poplar  sap  lumber, 
pine  saps,  sap  giun  and  the  like,  sawed  and  slowly 
air  dried  during  spring  and  summer.  These  in- 
juries are  due  to  undescribed  fungi. 
V.  Echinodontium.  tinctorium  attacks  western  hemlock 
causing  "cork," — like  Trametes  pini;  also  in 
spruce  and  red  fir.  (Reference:  For.  Bull.  33, 
p.  15). 


124  FOREST  PROTECTION 

J.     General  remedies  against  fungi  on  live  trees. 

I.     Extermination  or  removal  of  the  fungus  itself; 

(1)  in   case   of  seeds,   by  sterilization   with  hot 

water,  or  copper  "steep-mixtures." 

(2)  in  case  of  leaf-fungi,  by  dusting  or  spray- 

ing with  mixtures  containing  copper  or 
sulphur. 

(3)  in  case  of  Agaricacece  and  Polyporaceoe,  by 

removal  of  sporophores,  by  excision; 

(4)  in    case    of    dead    parts    of    plants    carrying 

sporocarps,  or  other  reproductive  stages 
of  fungi,  by  dead-pruning,   or  removal 
of  dead  litter  on  groimd. 
II.     Extermination  of  living  host  or  of  affected  parts  of 
same. 

(1)  Removal  of  livmg  host. 

(2)  Removal    of    complimentary     (hetercecious) 

host. 
III.     Avoidance  of  conditions  favoring  infection. 

(1)  no  wounds,  or  antiseptic  treatment  of  same; 

(2)  avoidance  of  localities  favorable  to  disease; 

(3)  no  large,  even  aged,  pure  forests; 

(4)  no  selection  systems,  no  siimmer  cutting; 

(5)  rotation  of  crops; 

(6)  no  planting  of  hetercecious  hosts  together; 

(7)  mixed  forests;  short  rotation;  suppression  of 

boring  insects;   no  artificial  pruning  of 
living  branches; 

(8)  raising  strong  trees  of  individual  power  of 

resistence  and  independent  for  help  from 
neighbors; 

(9)  improvement  cuttings  and  thinnings. 
K.    General  remedies  against  fungi  in  nurseries. 

(1)  Change  of  species,  notably  in  nursery  beds. 

(2)  Sterilized  soil  in  nursery  beds. 

(3)  Deep  trenches  between  nursery  beds. 

(4)  Drenching  the  beds  with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric 

acid  (one  ounce  of  acid  to  one  gallon  of  water) 
prior  to  seed  planting  and  after  the  sprouting 
of  the  seedlings.  Compare  Circular  No.  4,  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry. 

(5)  Production  of  fungus  proof  varieties. 

(6)  Spraymg  of  affected   leaves   or  shoots,   or  beds   with 

Bordeaux  mixture,  consisting  of  a  3%  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  and  lime  (Recipe,  Tubeuf 
&    Smith,  page  69). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  125 

L.     General  remedies  against  fungi  in  young  regenerations. 

(1)  Use  very  strong  plants. 

(2)  Do  not  buy  plants  from  nurseries  known  to  be  infested. 

(3)  Toungya. 

(4)  Avoid  foreigners. 

(5)  Plant  only  kinds  known  to  suit  the  locality. 

(6)  No  regeneration  from  mother  trees  in  pine  (Hyster- 

ium\)  in  beech  (Phytophtoral)  etc. 

(7)  No  seedlings  of  conifers  near  stumps  of  hardwoods. 
.1/.    General  remedies  against  fungi  in  lumber,  ties  and  poles. 

(1)  Wet  storage;  preservation  in  poncis  (mill),  saltwater 

(tamarack),  running  water  (Caesar's  Rhine  bridge), 
swamps  (Ky.  walnut). 

(2)  Dry  storage  (like  furniture)  under  shelter;  dry  kiln!! 

(3)  "Antistain,"  or  "painting,"  or  exposure  to  sim  and 

wind;  or  else  interruption  of  logging  and  mill- 
ing from  April  to  September. 

(4)  Impregnation  either  of  the  wood,  or  of  the  medium 

in  which  the  wood  is  kept.  (Compare  H.  von 
Schrenk,  in  Bull.  11,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry; 
further  Lectures  on  "Utilization"  by  C.  A. 
Schenck,  paragraph  XLIV), 


126  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  8.    Protection  Against  Parasites  Other  Than  Fungi. 

A.  A  number  of  phanerogams  live  parasitically  upon  various  trees, 

notably  in  the  tropics. 

In  the  United  States,  the  common  mistletoe  (Phoraden- 
dron  flavescens)  and  the  dwarf  mistletoe  (Arceuthobium  cryp- 
topoda  and  pusillum)  are  worthy  of  note.  (Bull.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  No.  149,  pp.  14  to  17).  Arceuthobium  occi- 
dentale  deforms  the  bole  and  the  branches  of  western  hem- 
lock, causing  cancerous  tumors  (Plate  VI,  Forestry  Bulletin 
No.  33,  p.   16). 

The  damage  done  by  these  parasites  is  so  insignificant 
that  remedies  are  nowhere  indicated. 

B.  Tree  mosses,  tree  algse  and  tree  lichens  are  variously  reported  as 

malefactors  when  occurring  in  such  quantities  that  yoimg 
leaves  and  fresh  shoots  are  smothered  by  them.  It  is  possible 
also  that  they  interfere  with  the  function  of  the  "lenticels." 
Tillandsia  usneoides  and  Usnea  barbata  may  be  mentioned 
as  representatives  of  this  group.  The  former  called  "Spanish 
moss"  is  a  flowering  plant,  common  on  trees  in  the  Southern 
States;  the  latter,  a  lichen,  is  abundant  in  northern  swamps 
and  woods.  Compare  Bulletin  No.  149,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, page  17. 


Part  B :  Protection  Against  Inorganic  Nature. 


CHAPTER   I:  PROTECTION   AGAINST    ADVERSE 
CLIMATIC   INFLUENCES. 

Par.  9.  Protection  Against  Frost. 

Frost  May  be  Beneficial 

By  checking  insect  plagues  (late  frost),  also  mice  and  other  rodents, 
decimating  them  in  cold  and  protracted  winters; 

By  clipping  back  inferior  species  competing  with  aristocrats  (beech 
vs.  oak  at  Viernheim);  midesirable  coppice  sprouts,  cut  in  Aug- 
ust, are  apt  to  die; 

By  furnishing  ice  on  lakes  and  on  iced  roads,  creating  conditions  favor- 
able to  transportation  by  sleds,  and  steady  weather  for  logging, 
skidding,  etc.; 

By  increasing  the  value  of  firewood,  and  oftentimes  by  forcing  men 
to  take  employment  in  the  woods  when  other  occupations  are  barred 
by  frost. 

A.  Frost  is  Injurious  to  Utilization 

By  Interfering 

1.  in  the  south  with  the  logging  operations, — owing  to  the 

unreliabDity  of  the  occurrence  of  frost;  the  necessity 
of  shoeing  cattle;  the  formation  of  jams  in  flumes; 
the  interference  by  late  frost  with  tan  bark  peeling, 
etc.;  also  by  bursting  trees,  when  felled  in  frozen  con- 
dition; by  toughness  of  fibre  so  as  to  retard  the  feed 
of  the  saw-carriage;  by  danger  to  water  pipes,  con- 
nected with  engines,  boilers,  locomotives,  donkey 
engines,  etc.;  by  necessity  of  changing  the  setting  of 
the  teeth,  and  the  temper  and  the  speed  of  the  saw. 

2.  in  the  north  with  water  transportation  on  the  lakes  (no- 

tably Great  Lakes)  and  rivers  (notably  St.  Lawrence). 

B.  Frost  is  Injurious  Physiologically  (Sylviculturally) 

By  killing  leaves,  buds,  shoots,  branches  (notably  sappy 
shoots),    flowers    and   fruits,    seedlings   and    (rarely)    saplings. 

There  is  no  proof  at  hand  of  poles  or  trees  of  native  species  being 
killed  by  frost. 

Foreigners  (e.  g.,  palms,  eucalypts  and  many  species  tried  in  nor- 
thern prairies)  are  subject  to  frost. 

127 


128  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Absolute  cold  is  not  injurious,   eo  ipso,  to  native   species,   which 
know  how  to  protect  themselves 

by  leaves  dropped 

by  non-freezing  cell  contents 

by  lignification 

by  cork  layers,  bud  scales,  hairs 

by  color 

by  position  (rolled  up  rhododendron  leaves) 

by  beginning  growth  late  and  by  finishing  it  early. 
The  death  of  a  specimen,  or  of  parts  of  it,  is  brought  about,  in  all 
probability,  by  a  rapid  transition  from  cold  to  warm  (cite 
various  theories,  and  experiments  made  to  support  them). 
Hence  it  is  that  the  severe  frost  of  winter,  or  frost  occurring 
at  a  time  at  which  plants  are  protected,  is  less  injurious  than 
a  light  early  frost  in  fall  or  a  light  late  frost  in  spring. 
Frost  occurring  unexpectedly  is  most  injurious, — and  particularly 
so  to  the  yoimg  parts  of  an  old  plant  or  to  a  plant,  all  parts 
of  which  are  young  and  tender  (e.  g.,  germinating  seedlings). 

(a)  Influencing  factors  are  : 

Locality  (frost  holes),  latitude,  altitude,  exposures 
(eastern); 

Atmospheric  conditions  preceding  and  following 
a  cold  spell; 

Snow  cover; 

Condition  of  plant  (germs  sprouting;  buds  open- 
ing; shoots  lengthening;  lignification  unfin- 
ished) ; 

Size  (age)  of  plants; 

Presence  or  absence  of  wind. 

(b)  Consequences  of  frost  are  : 

Failures  of  nursery  beds; 

Failure  of  natural  seed  regenerations; 

Failure  of  seed  years; 

Failure  of  seedlings  to  compete  with  weeds  (e.  g., 
sedgegrass  and  walnut  at  Biltmore),  and  with 
rabbits  (e.  g.,  maple  and  chestnutoak  at 
Biltmore); 

Saplings  and  seedlings  growing  bushy  or  forking 
(cherry,  loosing  tips  of  shoots  incessantly; 
larch,  at  Biltmore,  on  Bradley  Plantation, 
due  to  September  frost,  1906;  echinata  at 
Biltmore,  everywhere,  due  to  September  frost, 
1906); 

Aristocrats  smothered  by  mob  (walnut  at  Bilt- 
more overtopped  by  hard  maple,  owing  to 
frost); 


FOREST  PROTECTION  129 

Shortened  growing  season; 

Restricted  number  of  species  locally  producible; 

Double  rings  of  wood,  and  possibly  windshakes 
in  wood; 

Weakened  condition  of  a  tree,  subjecting  it  to 
insects  and  fungi,  and  also  to  breakage  by 
storm,  snow  and  sleet,  owing  to  the  reduced 
elasticity  of  the  fibre, 
(c)    Species  afflicted: 

The  species  knowTi  to  suffer,  in  one  way  or  an- 
other, from  frost  are  called  "sensitive;"  the 
others  are  known  as  "hardy"  species. 

HARDT  SENSITIVE 

AT  BiLTMORE 

Chestnut  Beech 

Maples  Oaks 

Black  Gum  Catalpa 

Scotch  Pine  Oregon  Ash 

White  Pine  Oregon  Maple 

Rigid  Pine  Box  Elder 

Halesia  Pinus  ponderosa 

Cottonwood  Pmus  lambertiana 

Hickories  Pinus  echinata 

Spruces  Edgeworthia 

Douglas  ia  Walnut 

Yellow  Poplar  Buckeye 


(d)   The  remedies  against  frost  are  almost  entirely 

PREVENTIVE : 

(Restrictive  measures  are  possible  only  in  nur- 
series, and  consist  in  watering  the  beds  after 
very  cold  nights). 

1.      In  nurseries: 

Late  planting  of  seeds  in  spring,  where  late  frost 
is  dreaded;  or  else  early  planting  where  early 
frost  is  feared  in  fall; 

Lath  screens,  or  nursery  under  cover  (unless 
lignification  is  handicapped) ; 

Clouds  of  smoke  on  frosty  mornings; 

Avoidance  of  east  aspects; 

Heeling-out  transplants,  so  as  to  retard  sprout- 
ing in  spring; 

H 


130  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Avoidance  of  dense  stands  in  seed  beds  (ash  seed- 
lings at  Biltmore  failed  to  lignify  in   1905, 
excepting  those  at  outer  edge). 
In  plantations: 

Remakk:  a  seedling  once  crippled  by  frost  is 
apt  to  be  crippled  again,  and  again,  and 
again,  owing  to  the  fact,  that  the  replace- 
ment of  organs  once  lost  takes  time;  so  that 
the  growing  season  is  shortened.  The  wal- 
nuts and  buckeyes  at  Biltmore,  once  clipped 
back  by  frost  have  been  clipped  back  an- 
nually. 

Early   planting   in   spring   to   avoid   early   frost; 

Late  planting  in  spring  to  avoid  late  frost; 

No  experimenting  with  the  introduction  of  new 
epecies; 

Natural  regeneration  of  Pinus  echinata  (also 
White  Pine  in  Adirondacks)  to  avoid  for- 
mation of  double  whirls; 

Planting  sensitive  species  beneath  a  light  cover 
overhead,  so  as  to  prevent  excessive  height 
growth,  or  premature  formation  of  spring 
shoots. 

Use  of  strong  stocky  seedlings,  since  minute 
plants  are  prevented  from  lignification  by 
shading  weeds. 

Selecting  species  suiting  the  soil  (walnut  on  best 
soil,  where  it  will  lignify;  echinata  on  poor 
soU,  where  it  will  form  one  shoot  only), 
the  exposure,  and  the  climate  (prairie  plant- 
ing); 

Cultivation,  so  as  to  stimulate  insolation  and 
lignification;  possibly  pruning  to  same  end; 
or  else  to  give  the  lead  to  one  side  shoot 
amongst  several  when  the  leader  is  frost- 
killed. 
In  natural  seed  regeneration: 

Progress  of  the  axe  in  shelterwood-types  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  the  seedlings, 
viz.,  slow,  where  late  frost  is  feared,  so  as 
to  retard  the  act  of  sprouting  in  spring; 
or  else  rapid,  where  early  frost  is  feared, 
so  as  to  allow  of  lignification; 

Untimely  and  sudden  removal  of  mother  trees 
may  shock  tender  plants  (even  spruce  5' 
high),  on  the  other  hand. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  131 

Frost  may  be  invited  on  purpose  to  check  a  loss 
desirable  species  in  mixture  with  a  hardier 
and  more  desirable  species. 
Frost  is  Injurioits 

BY  LIFTING  (uPROOTINg)  SEEDLINGS  IN  NURSERIES  AND  PLANTATIONS. 

Subject  to  damage  are: 

Flat  rooted  species  growing  slowly  in  early  youth,  notably 

conifers  (yellow  pine  yearlings,  white  pine  yearlings, 

spruce,  hemlock); 
Moist  localities  and  loose  soil; 
East  exposures,  and  notably  steep  east  aspects. 

(a)  Remedial  measures  are: 

Pressing  seedlings  back,  soon  after  accident. 

(b)  Restrictive  measures  are: 

1.  In  nurseries: 

Drainage  by  deep  paths  (middlings)  between  the 

beds; 
Proper  iEration  of  soil; 
Seedbeds  planted  broadcast; 
Strong  seedlings,  and  long  roots; 
Shadmg  betls,   and  covering  space  between  the 

rows  of  plants; 
No  weeding  in  early  fall. 

2.  In  plantations: 

Planting  on  reversed  sods; 
Momid  planting; 

Planting   three   year-olds    (two   year    old   trans- 
plants in  case  of  yellow  pine); 
Planting  ball  plants; 
Planting  under  shelter  overhead. 

Frost  is  Injurious 

BY  causing  frost  CRACKS 

in  hardwoods  only,  notably  in  case  of  injured  trees  and  of 

species  having  strong  medullary  rays. 
Insect  disease  and  fungus  disease  follow  in  the  cracks. 
Remedy:     Timely  thinning  or  improvement  cutting. 
Cracks  occlti,  notably, 

along  lower  part  of  bole; 

on  standards  over  coppice; 

on  south  side  of  trees; 

on  medium  sized  trees  (IJ^'-S')- 

in  moist  localities. 


132  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  10.  Protection  Against  Heat. 

A.  Heat  Causes  Harm  Only  : 

When  it  invites  forest  fires; 

When  it  fails  to  be  bahmced  by  the  moisture  in  the  air  or  soil  (wood 
lots  in  the  prairies;  old  park  trees); 

When  it  occurs  suddenly,  striking  the  trees  in  a  state  of  non-pro- 
tection (e.  g.,  new  plantations  and  trees  isolated  of  a  sudden). 

B.  The  Plants  Protect  Themselves  Ordinarily  Against  Heat: 

By  dropping  leaves; 

By  resinous  cell  contents; 

By  closed  stomata; 

By  color  and  position  of  leaves; 

By  coverings  of  cork,  hair  and  that  like. 

C.  Remedies: 

1.  In  infant  forests: 

(a)  in  nurseries: 

Secure  irrigation; 

Provide  lath  screens  or  cloth  screens; 
Maintain  a  cover  of  mould  on  the  soil; 
Cultivate  so  as  to  increase  the  porosity  of  soil; 
Plant  the  seeds  early  in  spring  before  the  winter 

moisture  has  vanished; 
Transplant  early  and  transplant  deeply. 

(b)  in  plantations: 

Use  strong  transplants; 

Adopt  mound  plantmg; 

Plant  under  cover; 

Adopt  ball  planting; 

Avoid  loss  of  root  fibres  during  act  of  out-planting; 

Cultivate. 

(c)  in  natural  seed  regenerations: 

Remove  mother  trees  slowly; 

Remove  trees  reflecting  heat  unto  young  growth. 

(d)  Generally : 

Maintain   a   dense  cover  overhead,   and   a  good 
layer  of  humus  underneath. 

2.  In  pole  forests  and  tree  forests: 

Characteristic  for  damage  (so-called  sunscald)  is: 

Bark  scaling  off; 

Sap  wood  turning  brown; 

Discoloration  and  decay  within  a  distinct  sector  of  bole, 
(a)    Prevent  sunscald  by  avoiding  sudden  changes  of  the 

influx  of  light; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  133 

Notably  so  in  the  case  of  dense  stands  of  beech, 
spruce,  white  pine,  ash; 

Notably  on  the  West-South-West  edge  of  a  wood 
lot. 

At  Biltmore,  Oak  saplings  along  the  macada- 
mized roads;  chestnuts  on  the  arboretum 
road;  and  hickories  of  small  diameter  have 
been  visited  by  the  disease. 

(b)  Do  not  remove  the  trees  affected  by  sunscald;  their 

removal  will  merely  expose  the  trees  in  the  rear, 
and  the  damage  will  continue. 

(c)  Do  not  remove,  from  endangered  trees,  by  pruning, 

any  living  branches. 

(d)  Time  the  progress  of  the  axe  properly  in  thinnings, 

preparatory  cuttings,  seed  cuttings  and  removal 
cuttings. 


134  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  11.  Protection  Against  Snow  and  Sleet. 

Snow  is  Beneficial: 

By  preventing  fires; 

By  storing  water  and  by  preserving  soil  moisture; 

By  facilitating  the  logging  operations; 

By  covering  sensitive  plants; 

By  removing  dead  side  branches; 

By  preventing  frost  from  entering  deeply  into  soil; 

By  reducing  the  felling  damages. 

A.  Snow  is  Technically  Obnoxious: 

By  preventing  the  use  of  wagons  or  railroads; 
By  endangering  skidding  on  steep  slopes; 
By  increasing  sledding  expenses  (when  snow  is  too  deep); 
By  causing  extra  outlay  in  cutting  stiunps  low  to  the  ground; 
By  reducing  the  accessibility  of  the  woods. 

Remark:     Winters  of  excessive  snow  are  known  as  winters  of  re- 
stricted output  of  lumber. 

B.  Snow  is  Physiologically  Obnoxious: 

By  bending  down  saplings  and  poles  with  or  without  their  roots; 
By  breaking  off  branches  and  crowns  or  by  breaking  down  poles 

and  trees  with  the  roots; 
By  causing  rodents  and  game  to  attack  trees  and  saplings  for  food; 
By  exposing  trees  after  breakage  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi; 
By  increasing  storm  damage  at  a  time  when  the  trees  are  loaded 

with  snow  or  sleet. 

C.  Factors  of  Damage. 

Species  and  mixture  of  species; 

Age  and  size  of  trees; 

Method  of  regeneration  and  notably  the  density  thereof; 

Climatic  constellations  (e.  g.,  coincidence  of  storm;  succession  of 

thaws  and  snows;  occurrences  of  snow  in  Octover,  before  the 

fall  of  the  leaves); 
Preceding  treatment  by  thinning;  by  removal  cuttings;  by  leaving 

standards  after  coppiceing;  by  road  making. 
Locality,  elevation  and  aspect: 
Steepness  of  slope; 
Depth  of  soil  (CoxehUl); 
Rate  of  growth  (fast  grown  yellow  pine  and  top  whirls  of  fast  grown 

white  pine  at  Biltmore;) 
Prior  injuries  by  fire,  by  boxing,  by  insects  and  fungi  (black  locusts). 
Remark:     Remember  the  following  illustrations: 
White  cedar  in  swamps  of  South  Carolina; 
Cuban  pine  in  Alabama; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  135 

Poplar  tops  in  Pisgah  Forest; 

Topped  white  pines  in  the  Pink  Beds; 

Black  locusts  and  hickory  on  mountain  tops; 

Plantations  of  rigid  pine  in  Black  Forest; 

Spruce  saplings  in  the  Balsams,  in  the  early  spring  of  1908. 
Remedies: 

Selecting  the  proper  species  for  planting  or  for  natural  seed  re- 
generations, in  keeping  with  the  requirements  of  the  locality 
and  of  the  climate; 

Group  system  of  natural  seed  regeneration; 

Planting  in  rows  instead  of  plantnig  in  triangles  (Hess); 

Thinnings  properly  made  beginning  early  in  very  dense  regenerations; 

Pollarding; 

Readiness  of  pem:ianent  means  of  transportation  so  as  to  make 
possible  the  salvage  of  broken  timber. 


CHAPTER  II:  PROTECTION  AGAINST  STORM,  EROSION, 
SANDDRIFTS,  NOXIOUS  GASES. 

Part  12.  Protection  Against  Wind  Storms. 

Wind  is  Beneficial: 

By  restoring  the  chemical  balance  of  the  atmosphere; 
By  distributing  pollen  and  seeds; 
By  preventing  excessive  formation  of  side  branches; 
By  bringing  rain. 

A.  Damage  is  Caused  by  Wind  Storm  (aside  of  forest  fires  spread  or  fanned) : 

(a)  IN  plantations: 

By  loosening  the  anchorage  of  tall  seedlings  and 
saplings;  (notably,  after  planting  in  furrows, 
in  the  prairies,  on  sand  dunes); 

By  drying  out  roots  and  shoots  and  leaves  and 
soil  (notably  in  the  early  spring); 

By  removing  the  protecting  cover  of  snow; 

By  allowing  the  "mob"  to  whip  the  top  shoots 
of  "aristocrats." 

(b)  IN  exposed  localities: 

By  one-sided  (seashore  or  Pisgah  ridge)  or  stunted 
growth. 

(c)  IN  tree  forests  and  in  large  pole  woods: 

By  breakage  of  crowns  or  branches,  thus  allow- 
ing access  to  fungi  and  to  insects; 

By  breakage  of  stems  at  their  point  of  least  re- 
sistence; 

By  uprooting  trees  singly,  in  avenues,  or  in  large 
blocks; 

By  endangering  the  logging  operations. 

B.  Factors  of  Damage  are  : 

(a)  Species: 

Flat-rooted  conifers  are  most  endangered;  a  mix- 
ture of  species  in  advisable. 

(b)  Size  class: 

Poles  and  trees  over  8"  in  diameter  are  most 
subject  to  damage. 

(c)  Locality: 

Leeward  sides  of  lakes; 

Mountain  slopes  and  mountain  tops  on  leeward 

side; 
Moist  spots; 
Shallow  soil. 

136 


FOREST  PROTECTION  137 

(d)  Prior  Treatment: 

Partial  logging,  leaving  a  freshly  bared  front 
exposed  to  the  prevailing  storm; 

Standards  over  coppice; 

Single  seedtrees  over  regeneration; 

Borggreve  thinnings; 

Turpentining  by  the  box  system; 

Interference  with  anchorage  of  roots  by  making 
ditches  or  roads. 

(e)  Shape  of  trees: 

Cylindrical  trees  are  more  top  heavy  than  coni- 
cal trees. 

(f)  Accompanying  circumst.'WCes: 

Heavy  rains  soakmg  the  soil; 

Heavy  seed  years  when  the  tops  of  the  trees  are 

loaded  with  cones; 
Sleet; 
Snow. 

C.  Preventive  measures  : 

(a)  Sylviculturally: 

Ball   planting,    deep    planting,   sod   covering    on 

shifting  sand. 
Fostering  hardwoods  or  mixture  therewith; 
Early  and  moderate  and  regular  thinnings; 
Pruning  or  lopping  to  reduce  top-heaviness; 
No  standards; 

No  single  tree  method  of  natural  seed  regeneration; 
Proper  preparation  in  due  time  of  trees  intended 

for  an  isolated  position; 
Short  rotations. 

(b)  Technically  : 

Avoidance  of  logging  methods  leaving  points 
favorable  to  the  attack  of  storms; 

Progress  of  the  axe  against  the  direction  of  the 
barometric  minima; 

Herty  method  of  terpentining; 

Proper  "cutting  series;" 

Timely  "severance  cuttings." 

D.  Restrictive  Measures: 

Readiness  of  means  of  transportation   (railroads  and  roads)  after 

wind  falls; 
Removing  the  bark  from  wind  falls; 
Throwing  wind  falls  in  water. 


138  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  13.  Protection  Against  Erosion. 

The  adult  forest  does  not  require  any  protection  from  erosion — usu- 
ally so. 

It  must  be  remembered,  on  the  other  hand,  that  "civilization"  (by 
ditching  the  slopes  on  the  hills;  by  cutting  roads  and  railroads  into  the  soil; 
by  draining  the  bottom-lands  for  farming  purposes)  increases  the  rapidity 
of  the  subterranean  and  of  the  superficial  drainage;  that  it  results  in  a  par- 
tial destruction  of  the  soil  on  the  hill  sides. 

Erosion,  in  the  present  geological  acra,  is  not  so  active,  nevertheless, 
as  it  was  in  prior  periods. 

A  forest  plantation  on  the  hill  side  suffers  during  its  early  stages  from 
erosion  where  the  soil  consists  of  clay,  and  where  the  plough  has  preceded 
the  establishment  of  the  embryo-forest. 

Some  seedlings  are  washed  out  of  the  soU  whilst  others  are  covered 
by  detritus. 

At  Biltmore,  erosion  has  harmed  particularly  the  so-called  "old  school 
house"  plantation,  in  its  earliest  stage  of  development. 

As  soon  as  the  forest  covers  the  ground  fully,  viz.:  when  the  branches 
of  neighboring  specimens  interlace,  all  erosion  is  usually  stopped  and  stopped 
for  good. 

Oftentimes  deep  gullies  are  cut  into  the  side  slopes  during  and  after 
agricultural  occupancy  of  the  soil;  in  such  cases,  the  stopping  of  the  gullies 
by  wicker  works  or  hurdles  can  be  recommended. 

These  wicker  works  should  not  protrude  more  than  one-half  foot  above 
the  surface  of  the  soil. 

They  should  be  made,  particularly,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  gully.  It 
is  useless  to  make  them  at  the  lower  end  alone. 

These  wicker  works  wUl  hinder  erosion  to  a  certain  extent;  will  quiet 
the  soil  within  the  gullj';  and  will  allow  the  grasses  and  the  weeds  to  occupy 
the  sides  of  the  gully. 

The  most  interesting  case  of  erosion  met  in  Eastern  America  is,  pos- 
sibly, the  erosion  exhibited  in  the  immediate  proximity  of  the  smelter  works 
at  Ducktown,  Term. 

Here,  the  hUlsides  were  laid  bare  entirely  at  a  time  at  which  the  smelters 
used  the  timber  for  charcoal. 

Following  this  deforestation,  the  bared  areas  were  used  for  roasting 
(by  the  open  heap  method)  of  the  copper-bearing  ores.  As  a  consequence, 
every  vestige  of  vegetation  has  been  annihilated  on  the  hillsides  and  eros- 
ion has  had  a  chance  to  work  in  an  amazing  degree  of  intensity. 

Erosion  may  be  checked  by  horizontal  ditches — or  ditches  running 
at  a  very  light  grade;  by  the  planting  of  grasses  or  weeds  between  horizon- 
tal ditches;  and  finally,  by  afforestation. 

There  is  no  means  better  than  successful  afforestation  by  which  the 
soil  can  be  fastened  or  anchored  to  the  underlying  rock. 

Afforestation  as  a  topic  of  lectures  belongs  into  "Sylviculture"  and 
into  "Forest  Policy." 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  14.  Protection  Against  Shifting  Sands. 

Instances  are  rare  in  which  the  forest  requires  any  protection  against 
shifting  sands. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  forest  frequently  tends  to  protect  from  damage 
the  farms,  the  railroads  and  other  human  interests. 

In  other  words:  The  forest  requires,  rarely,  protection  against  shift- 
ing sands;  and  it  acts  frequently  as  a  protector  against  shifting  sands. 

Famous  instances  of  the  role  which  the  forest  plays  in  this  connection 
are  those  of  Cape  Cod,  Mass.;  of  Hatteras  Island,  N.  C.  (Compare  Collier 
Cobb's  article  in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  entitled  "Where  the 
wind  does  the  work");  in  Central  Hungary;  in  the  Landes  of  Gascogny, 
France;  in  the  Rhine  Valley  near  Darmstadt,  Germany;  along  the  Colum- 
bia River  in  Oregon  and  Washington;  and  so  on). 

A.  Shifting  sand  along  the  seashore  is  found  notably  in  the  form  of  sand 

dimes  moving  landward,  fed  and  driven  by  ocean  winds. 

It  would  be  imwise  to  attempt  any  afforestation  of  the  dunes  nearest 
the  ocean.  Afforestation  may  set  in  at  some  distance  from  the 
ocean  in  protected  depressions  found  between  parallel  dmies. 

The  dunes  are  fixed,  to  begin  with,  by  rough  palings  forming  the  heart 
of  the  dunes  and  causing  a  constant  growth  of  the  height  of  the 
dimes.  The  sides  of  the  dunes  are  fortified  by  sandgrasses  and 
sandweeds. 

The  species  used  for  afforestation  belong  to  particularly  modest  genera: 
Cottonwoods,  willows  and  pines  are  recommended. 

Obviously,  the  forester  restocking  shifting  sands  is  interested  m  the 
fixation  of  the  sands  more  than  in  a  direct  revenue  derivable  from 
plantations  made  at  a  very  high  expense  on  very  sterile  soil. 

B.  The  case  lies  somewhat  different  on  sand  areas  found  inland.     Here, 

afforestation  is  frequently  indicated  as  a  means  toward  a  revenue 
obtainable  from  soil  lying  otherwise  unproductive  and  threaten- 
ing, at  the  margins  of  the  sand  fields,  destruction  to  adjoining  farm- 
land. 

The  usual  method  of  proceeding  is  the  following: 

Sods  of  grasses  or  else  sods  of  heather  are  laid  on  the  soil,  checker-board 
fashion.  Within  the  sods  are  planted  longrooted  yellow  pines, 
preference  being  given  to  transplants  two  years  old  or  else  to  ball 
plants  one  year  old.     There  is  no  harm  in  "deep  planting." 

Afforestation  should  begin  on  the  windward  side  of  the  sand  area,  in 
protected  spots. 

The  most  famous  attempt  made  in  America  toward  the  afforestation 
of  inland  sands  is  that  of  the  Forest  Service  trying  to  establish, 
on  the  "Bad  Lands"  of  Nebraska,  a  planted  forest  on  a  large  scale. 


140  FOREST  PROTECTION 

It  is  obvious  that  small  plants  are  pulled  out  of  a  loose  soil  readily  by 
the  wind — notably  so  in  the  case  of  evergreens;  and  that  large 
transplants  suffer  badly  from  the  shock  of  outplanting  and  from 
the  inadequacy  of  the  water  supply  available  on  sterile  sand. 

Wheresoever  the  soil  is  apt  to  become  shifting,  the  law  should  prohibit 
the  removal  of  the  trees  by  their  owners. 

The  influence  in  that  direction  exercised  by  a  commonwealth  is  dealt 
with  in  the  lectures  on  "Forest  Policy." 


FOREST  PROTECTION  141 


Par.  15.  Protection  Against  Noxious  Gases  (Sulphurfumes). 

By  the  term  "sulphurfumes"  are  understood  certain  gases  formed  by 
the  oxidation  of  sulphur.  Huge  amounts  of  these  gases  are  produced  wher- 
ever sulphur-bearing  minerals  are  treated  in  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air. 

Contamination  of  the  atmosphere  is  one  of  the  evils  adherent  to  civili- 
zation, or,  which  is  the  same,  adherent  to  an  increase  of  population  at  cer- 
tain centers.  The  breath  of  any  man  or  any  animal  and,  more  than  that, 
the  smoke  rising  from  any  building  (dwellings  as  well  as  factories)  contami- 
nate the  air. 

After  Angus  Smith,  the  atmosphere  at  Manchester,  England,  contains 
a  little  less  than  the  one-millionth  part  of  SO  2  on  the  average  of  the  year. 

The  rain  water  investigations  made  by  the  same  English  author  show 
the  rapid  increase  of  sulphuric  acid  in  rain  water  near  industrial  centers. 

The  sulphur  contained  in  common  coal  averages  1.7%,  of  which  1.2% 
develop  into  noxious  sulphurfmnes.  In  other  words,  85  tons  of  coal  will 
develop  on  the  average  2  tons  of  noxious  SO  2. 

Since  the  consumption  of  bituminous  coal  in  the  United  States  is  in 
excess  of  200,000,000  tons  per  annum,  it  appears  that  we  send  into  the  at- 
mosphere (pre-eminently  in  the  northeast)  annually  about  4,700,000  tons 
of  sulphurous  acid. 

A.     Nature  of  Dajiage  to  Leaves. 

There  is  not  at  hand,  at  the  present  time,  any  scientific  explana- 
tion of  the  strange  physiological  effect  which  sulphur  fimies 
exercise  upon  vegetation. 

After  Prof.  Naegeli,  SO  2  checks  the  normal  movement  of  the  live 
plasma  in  the  leaves. 

Von  Schroeder  finds  that  the  transpiration  from  the  leaves  is  that 
function  which  is  most  vitally  reduced  by  inhalation  of  SOi. 

During  night,  transpiration  from  the  leaves  is  natiirally  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  is  little 
difference  in  the  evaporative  function  of  leaves  during  night, 
whether  they  be  exposed  to  SO  2  or  whether  they  be  left  in 
an  atmosphere  free  from  SO  2. 

When  the  sun  shines,  the  difference  between  the  evaporation  in 
leaves  exposed  to  SO  2  and  in  leaves  exposed  to  a  pure  atmos- 
phere is  ver>'  strikmg. 

Reduced  transpiration  appears  to  be  noticeable  before  discolora- 
tion of  leaves  occurs  in  a  sulphurous  atmosphere. 

After  von  Schroeder,  very  small  quantities  of  SO  2  continuously 
acting  produce  the  same  final  result  (always  in  the  glass  case) 
which  large  quantities  will  produce  acting  for  short  periods 
only.  This  observation  does  not  tally  with  the  results  of 
Freji;ag's  experiments  made  in  the  open  air. 


142  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Darkness  reduces  the  damage  by  SO  2  more  than  dryness.  In  the 
presence  of  light,  heat  and  humidity,  the  discoloring  and  dead- 
ening action  of  SO 2  is  most  intense;  which  is  to  say;  It  is 
strongest  when  the  vital  fimctions  of  the  leaves  are  most  active. 

Parallel  experiments  show  no  discoloration  as  a  consequence  of  the 
absorption  of  SO  2  in  the  dark  room  (at  night),  although  such 
absorption  takes  place  actually. 

Wet  leaves  show  much  more  discoloration  than  drj'  leaves  in  the 
same  sulphurous  atmosphere. 

The  main  difficulty  met  in  ascertaining  the  dilution  at  which  SOj 
becomes  innocuous  lies  in  the  disturbing  influence  of  light 
and  moisture. 

After  Freytag  (experiments  in  the  open  air)  damage  is  possible 
only  in  humid  air,  or  when  the  leaves  are  slightly  wet  from 
drizzling  rain  and  from  dew. 

Again,  after  Freytag,  air  containing  less  than  0.003%  (of  weight) 
of  SO  2  is  innocuous,  even  under  adverse  hydrographic  con- 
ditions and  in  spite  of  continuous  fumigation,  applied  during 
a  number  of  weeks. 

Freytag's  experiments  are  the  only  open-air  experiments  which 
have  been  conducted  with  scientific  correctness. 

SO  2  and  SO  3  are  absorbed  in  the  same  absolute  quantities  by  the 
leaves  when  present  in  the  air  in  equal  proportions.  Discol- 
oration of  leaves,  however,  and  decrease  in  transpiration  from 
leaves  are,  simultaneously,  much  smaller  in  an  atmosphere 
of  SO  3  than  in  an  atmosphere  of  SO  2.  Consequently,  all 
conditions  which  favor  the  formation  of  SO  3  in  the  air  before 
the  air  touches  the  leaves  must  decrease  the  damage — espec- 
ially so  in  the  case  of  chronic  affections. 

The  assumption  that  clouds  of  smoke  interfere  with  the  admis- 
sion of  light  and  hence  with  the  assimilation  of  the  leaves  is 
erroneous. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  "stuffing  up"  of  the  so-called  stomata 
found  on  the  leaves  (through  which  inhalation  and  transpira- 
tion takes  place)  caused  by  soot  or  solid  particles  contained 
in  the  fumes. 

Experiments  made  by  Stoeckliardt  prove  this  thesis  beyond  a  doubt. 

B.     Chemical  Remarks. 

Sulphurous  acid  (H2SO3)  is  unlcnown  in  the  free  state:  it  is  likely 

to  be  contained  in  the  solution  of  gaseous  SO  2  in  the  water. 
Sulphurous  acid  forms  primary  and  secondary  sulphites;  its  salts 

are  obtained  by  saturating  a  base  with  a  watery  solution  of  SO  2- 
If  sulphurous  acid  is  eliminated  from  its  salts  by  the  action  of  stronger 

acids,  then  it  forms  its  anhydrid  and  water. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  143 

Since  a  large  number  of  calories  of  heat  are  set  free  by  the  union 
of  S  and  O,  in  forming  the  SO  2,  the  anhydrid  is  a  constant 
combination. 

SO,   is  readily  reduced,  by  H^S,  into  water  and  sulphur. 

In  watery  solutions  as  well  as  in  gaseous  form  SO ,  readily  oxidises 
into  SO  3,  when  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere, 
32  calories  of  heat  being  liberated  by  such  oxidation. 

On  the  other  hand,  SO 3  at  red  heat  dissolves  into  oxygen  and  SO,. 
It  stands  to  reason  that  with  increasing  distance  from  the 
smoke-stack  the  contents  of  the  smoke  are  more  SO 3  than  SO,. 

After  von  Schroeder,  the  gases  of  SO  3  are,  without  a  doubt,  less 
damaging  to  vegetation  inhaling  them  than  the  gases  of  SO,. 

Within  the  leaves  SO,  is  very  quicklv  converted,  by  oxidation, 
into  SO  3. 

A  few  hours  after  gas-poisoning,  only  SO 3  (not  SO,)  can  be  proven 
to  be  present  within  the  leaves. 

Chemical  analysis  of  leaves  can  only  fix  the  territory  infested  in 
a  random  way.  It  can  never  be  used  as  a  measure  of  damage 
locally  found.  The  damage  can  be  assessed  only  according 
to  the  effects  discernible  with  the  naked  eye.  So-called  "in- 
visible   damages"   have   never   been    allowed   by   the   Courts. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  leaves  suspected  to  be  poisoned  deals 
only  with  an  abnormal  (imnatiu-al)  surplus  of  SO  3. 

All  leaves  contain,  in  nature,  certain  amounts  of  SO 3,  the  amounts 
depending  on  the  composition  of  the  soil  and  on  the  species. 

Hence  a  comparative  analysis  of  the  leaves  is  absolutely  necessary 
where  it  is  intended  to  establish  the  influence  of  sulphurfumes 
on  vegetation.  This  analysis  must  allow  for  the  difference 
in  the  soil  and  the  difference  in  the  distance  from  the  smelters. 
At  the  same  time,  the  leaves  examined  must  be  taken  from 
the  same  part  of  the  tree  and  from  the  same  side  of  the  tree; 
further,  the  leaves  must  be  in  the  same  stage  of  development. 

After  recent  experiments  the  sulphuric  contents  in  the  leaves  within 
the  lower  part  of  the  crown  are  miich  higher  than  the  sulphuric 
contents  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cro-rni. 

The  ashes  obtained  from  trees  growing  in  low  lands  are  relatively 
poorer  in  SO  3  than  the  ashes  from  trees  growing  on  mountains. 
Weak  limbs  show  more  SO  3  than  strong  limbs. 

The  Merits  of  the  Chemical  Analysis. 

Science  has  not  established  any  absohitely  reliable  means  to 
connect  death  or  injury  of  trees  with  a  poisoning  eff'ect  of 
SO,  or  SO 3  suspended  in  the  air  surrounding  such  trees. 


144  FOREST  PROTECTION 

An  anatomic — microscopic  proof  of  injury  due  to  SO  2  or  SO  3  can- 
not be  given  (Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p.  93  and  p.  37). 

A  number  of  injurious  influences  (frost,  heat,  desiccation  of  soil, 
insects,  fungi  (Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p.  110)  fire,  etc.)  bring 
about,  within  the  leaves  and  needles,  identical  or  similar  al- 
terations of  the  cell-structure  (Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p.  12  ff). 

The  consensus  of  opinion,  amongst  scientific  specialists  (R.  Har- 
tig,  p.  6;  Winkler,  p.  379;  Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p.  126)  is  to 
the  effect  that  excessive  contents  of  SO  3  within  the  leaves 
are  not  necessarily  injurious. 

Injury  due  to  sulphurfumes  can  be  assumed  only  when  there  are 
at  hand 

A.  death  visible  to  the  naked  eye; 

B.  no  other  plausible  cause  of  such  death; 

C.  contents  of  SO  3  in  the   leaves   which   are   unmistak- 

ably increased    by    the    reaction    of    the    leaves 
and  needles  on  sulphur  fumes. 

Unmistakably  increased   contents  of  SOi 
proven  chemically  within  the  leaves  are 

a.  not    identical     with    abnormal    con- 

tents; 

b.  not  such  contents  as  exceed  the  av- 

erage contents  of  leaves  within 
territories  acknowledged  to  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  sulphur 
fumes;  in  other  words, 

c.  not  particularly  high  percentages  of 

SO  3    found   within   the   leaves. 
General  averages  holding  good 
for  the  contents  of  SOj  within 
the  leaves  of  healthy  trees  do 
not  exist  (Haselhoff  and  L  ndau, 
p.  67). 
If  the  contents  of  SO  3  found  within  the  in- 
jured or  uninjured  leaves  and  needles  of 
a  given  tree  exceed  those  obtained  by 
averaging  a  large  number  of  analytic  re- 
sults obtained  from  the  tests  of  healthy 
leaves  and  needles,  then  and  in  such  case 
the  excess  is  frequently  due  to  any  one, 
or   to    a    combination    of   the    following 
causes: 

(a)  Soil:  A  soil  naturally  rich  in 
SO  3  or  irrigated  with  water 
containing    SOj,    produces 


FOREST  PROTECTION  1^5 

leaves  and  needles  sur- 
charged with  SO,.  Such 
surcharge  has  no  detrimen- 
tal influence  on  the  state  of 
health  of  the  trees  (Hasel- 
hoff  and  Lindau,  p.  46,  p. 
51,  p.  55,  p.  56). 

(b)  Age:    Old  needles  contain  more 

SO  I  than  young  needles. 
(Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p. 
67;  Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p. 
128). 

(c)  Season:    Young  leaves  contain 

more  SO  3  than  old  leaves. 

(d)  Position:    On  the  same  healthy 

tree,  the  sulphur  contents 
of  the  leaves  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the 
leaves,which  position  might 
be 

at  the  base  or  at  the 
top  of  the  crown, 
on  the  inside  or  on 
the  outside  of  the 
crown. 

(e)    Elevation:     On  the  slope  of  a 
hill,  the  sulphur  contents  in 
the  healthy  leaves  of  the 
same    tree-species    exhibit 
variations  depending  on  the 
elevation    above    sea-level 
(Schroeder   and   'Reuss,  p. 
126). 
The  sulphur  contents  of  given  leaves  and  need- 
les    are    "unmistakably    increased"    by 
the  reaction  on  sulphur  fumes  in  all  cases 
where  it  can  be  proven  that  none  of  the 
causes  of  increase  above  enumerated  has 
or  have  brought  about  such  increase.    It 
is  advisable,  as  a  consequence, 

(1)  to  back  the  chemical  analysis  of 
the  leaves  by  the  chemical 
analysis  of  the  soil  on  which 
such  leaves  were  produced, 
BO  as  to  prove  that  an  in- 


146  FOREST  PROTECTION 

crease  of  leaf -sulphur  is  not 
due  to  an  increase  of  soil- 
sulphur  (Haselhoff  and  Lin- 
dau,  p.  378); 
(2)  to  compare  the  analytic  results 
of  such  leaves  and  needles 
only  which  were  picked 
equally  old; 

equally   situated   with- 
in the  crown  of  the 
trees; 
equally   situated    with 
reference  to  eleva- 
tion. 
All  experts  agree  that  short,  sudden,  strong 
attacks  by  sulphur  fumes  are  apt  to  be 
deadly;  still,  such  attacks  do  not  cause 
a  VERY  MARKED  increase  of  SO  3  in  the 
leaves. 
On  the  other  hand,  long-continued,  but  slight 
attacks   by   sulphur   fumes   result   in   a 
heavy   increase    of   SO  3    in   the   leaves; 
still,  such  attacks  do    not    cause  a  very 
marked   injury   to  the  trees  (Wislicenus, 
Journal  of  Applied  Chemistry,  1901,  p. 
28). 
It  is  evident,  consequently,  that  conclusions 
based  on  the  chemical  analysis  of  leaves 
and  needles  are  apt  to  be  rash;  and  that 
so-called  chemical  proofs  must  be  viewed 
with  great  precaution  (Wieler,  p.  380). 

D.    Unreliability  of  Glass-Case  Experiments. 

Experiments  touching  the  poisonous  effect  of  fumes  made  with 
plants  placed  in  a  glass  case  cannot  be  so  telling  as  experi- 
ments made  in  the  open,  because; 

a.  In  the  glass  case,  the  gas  is  admitted  from  below  so 

as  to  infest  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves,  which 
lower  surface  is  known  to  be  more  subject  to 
sulphur  attacks  than  the  upper  surface. 

b.  Sulphurous   anhydrid,   in  statu  nascendi,   is  increas- 

ingly active  and  pre-eminently  corrosive. 

c.  The  discoloration  of  the  leaves  in  nature  differs  from 

the  discoloration  usually  observed  in  glass  case 
experiments. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  147 

d.  In  nature,  SO  3  is  largely  mixed  with  SOi,  the  former 
being  less  active  than  the  latter.  In  the  glass 
case,  usually,  only  SO  2  is  developed. 

E.    Factors  of  Dama3e. 

Without  a  doubt,  a  slight  admixture  to  the  atmosphere  of  either 
SO  2  or  SO  3  has  a  certain  influence  on  vegetation;  such  in- 
fluence being  irregularly  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  the 
admixture. 

After  Stoeckhardt,  the  one-millionth  part  of  the  air  consisting  of 
SO  2  results,  in  the  course  of  time,  in  discoloration  (335  fumi- 
gations discolor  wet  leaves  in  six  weeks,  dry  leaves  in  eight 
weeks). 

The  degree  of  injury  depends  on 

a.  The  continuity  of  the  fumigation  which  is  governed 

by  the  steadiness  of  the  wind  direction  and  which 
decreases,  step  by  step,  with  increasing  distance 
from  the  smelters. 

b.  The   sensitiveness   of  the   plants   which   is   governed 

by  species,  quality  of  the  soil,  preceding  injury 
by  fire,  pasture  or  general  neglect. 

c.  The  number  of  months  per  annum  during  which  the 

leaves  show  physical  activity.  In  the  case  of 
hardwoods,  this  number  is  about  3J^,  extend- 
ing from  May  1  to  August  15. 

d.  Atmospheric  conditions  which  may  allow  the  gases 

to  remain  in  bulk  after  emission  from  the  smoke- 
stack,  thus   concentrating  the   damage   on   such 
parts  of  the  coimtry  toward   which  the  smoke 
happens  to  drift  in  bulk. 
It  has  been  proven  by  experiments  as  well  as  by  the  experience 
of  all  observers  in  nature,  that  days  of  great  atmospheric  hu- 
midity, days  on  which  fog  forms  and  days  following  nights 
of  heavy  dew  are  particularly  prolific  in  breeding  acute  dis- 
coloration or  damage.     On  the  other  hand,  very  bright  weather 
as  well  as  heavy  rains  seem  to  minimize  the  damage  by  inten- 
sive dilution  and  may  prevent  damage  entirely. 
The  toxic  influence  of  sulphur  gases  might  be  considered  either 
as  an  acute  or  as  a  chronic  disease.     Acute  cases  appear  only 
in  the  near  proximity  of  smelters  where  clouds  of  smoke  kept 
in  bulk  under  certain  atmospheric  constellations  actually  ex- 
ercise a  corroding  influence  on  the  leaves. 
On  the  other  hand,  where  the  diluted  gases  are  inhaled  by  the  plants 
during  a  long  number  of  days  under  the  influence  of  a  steady 
wind,  there  chronic  discoloration  and  chronic  disease  will  enter 
an  appearance. 


148  FOREST  PROTECTION 

F.  Damage  to  the  Soil. 

Conclusive  experiments  prove  that  soluble  sulphuric  salts  of  cop- 
per (like  blue  vitriol)  fail  to  cause  any  damage  to  the  plants, 
whether  applied  in  the  form  of  dust  or  in  the  form  of  watery- 
solution.  Very  concentrated  solutions,  however,  cause  cor- 
rosion; also  dust  falling  on  leaves  wet  with  dew. 

Although  the  roots  of  plants  are  unable  to  refuse  entrance  to  dam- 
aging liquids,  it  has  been  found  that  soluble  salts  of  copper, 
when  entering  the  soU,  form  at  once  an  insoluble  chemical 
combination  with  the  bases  of  the  soil.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, that  poor  quartz-sand,  in  the  immediate  proximity  of 
the  smelters,  can  be  affected  by  soluble  salts  of  copper. 

Insoluble  salts  of  copper  are,  obviously,  harmless  in  the  soil. 

Absolute  proof  for  or  against  soil-poisoning  can  be  obtained  only 
by  planting  seeds  and  seedlings  into  soil  supposed  to  be  poi- 
soned, after  removal  to  a  point  far  from  the  smelters.  Plant- 
ing experiments  made  by  Reuss  have  failed  to  proA^e  any  posion- 
ing  of  the  soil,  even  under  extreme  conditions. 

The  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  soil  is  by  no  means  propor- 
tioned to  the  damage  appearing  in  the  trees.  On  the  other 
hand,  trees  stocking  on  sulphuric  soil  (e.  g.  gypsum  soil)  show 
invariablj^  a  high  percentage  of  sulphuric  acid  within  the  leaves. 
It  seems  as  if  sulphuric  acid  ol^tained  through  the  roots  is 
innocuous,  whilst  sulphuric  acid  inhaled  through  the  leaves 
is  noxious. 

If  by  condensation  of  the  gases  at  the  smelters  the  atmosphere 
is  purified,  the  soil  in  the  proximity  of  the  smelters  is  as  ready 
to  produce  as  ever.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  irreparable  damage  caused  by  smelterfumes. 

Experiments  with  plants  watered  with  a  solution  of  SO  2  prove 
conclusively  that  no  damage  results  from  such  watering.  On 
the  contrary!  After  Freytag,  plants  watered  with  a  solu- 
tion of  SO  a  have  shown  better  yields  than  those  which  were 
not  watered  with  SO  2. 

In  other  words,  sulphuric  acid  has  a  chance  to  become  a  blessing 
to  agriculture,  especially  where  the  soU  contains  insoluble 
phosphates;  and  there  is,  decidedly,  no  such  thing  as  the  "poi- 
soning of  the  soil"  through  SO 2  or  SO 3,  applied  in  gaseous 
form  or  liquid  form,  as  salt  or  acid. 

G.  Damage  to  Farm  Crops  and  Fruit  Trees. 

Within  the  vegetation  economically  used,  farm  crops  suffer  less 
from  fumes  than  trees.  In  the  case  of  farm  crops  potatoes 
seem  to  be  least  sensitive,  cereals  follow  next,  whilst  legumi- 
nous plants  are  more  sensitive. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  149 

Farming  can  be  carried  on  remuneratively  in  closer  proximity  of 
the  smelters  than  forestry.     Obviously,  in  the  case  of  annual 
plants,  there  is  no  cuniulative  mfiuence  of  SOi  due  to  many 
a  year's  exposure. 
The  fact  that  farm  crops  are  more  resistant  to  smoke  than  forest 
crops  may  be  explained  ,also,  by  the  higher  reproductive  power 
of  the  former  and  by  the  greater  height  of  the  latter,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  exposed  to  more  concentrated  gases  of  SOj. 
In  case  of  fruit  trees,  mulberries  seem  to  be  least  sensitive;  then 
follow  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  with  cherries  as  the  most 
sensitive  fruit  trees  at  the  rear  end. 
"VNTierever  fruit  trees  are  well  attended  by  cultivation  and  by  fer- 
tilizing, the  damage  by  sulphur  fumes  is  minimized. 
The  "floral  organs"  of  the  fruit  trees  seem  to  be  less  affected  by 
smoke  than  the   "pulmonary   organs,"   which   means  to  say 
the  fruiting  of  the  trees  is  not  badly  interfered  with  by  SO, 
and  SO,. 
Damage  to  Forests. 

The  forest  trees,  according  to  species  and  individuality,  exhibit 
a  very  varying  degree  of  sensitiveness  to  the  influence  of  sul- 
phur fimies.  The  degree  of  liability  to  damage  is  in  no  way 
proportioned  to  the  readiness  with  which  the  trees  inhale  sul- 
phuric fumes.  I'or  instance,  the  conifers  are  more  affected 
by  sulphur  fumes  than  are  the  hardwoods.  Still,  exposed  to 
the  same  atmosphere  charged  with  sulphuric  fumes,  the  coni- 
fers will  inhale  smaller  quantities  of  toxic  gases  than  the  hard- 
woods. 
The  power  of  resistence  which  the  various  species  show  to  the  in- 
fluence of  sulphur  fumes  is.  on  the  other  hand,  directly  pro- 
portioned to  the  power  of  reproduction  (power  of  recovery) 
which  the  various  species  show.  It  is  obvious  that  this  power 
of  recovery  is  particularly  good  in  hardwoods,  which  must 
recover,  every  spring,  from  the  natural  loss  of  foliage  sustained 
in  the  preceding  fall. 
In  the  case  of  broad-leaved  species,  any  loss  of  vital  organs  is  readily 
made  up,  whilst  in  the  case  of  conifers  the  reproductive  power 
is  comparatively  low. 
Amongst  the  conifers,  those  which  retain  their  needles  for  a  nima- 
ber  of  years  are  more  apt  to  suft'er  from  sulphuric  fumes  than 
those  which  retain  their  needles  for  one  or  two  years  only. 
Inasmuch  as  the  resistence  which  the  trees  offer  to  injury  by  sul- 
phurfumes  is  proprotioned  to  their  power  of  reproduction, 
and  inasmuch  as  this  power  of  reproduction  largely  depends 
on  the  fertility  of  the  soU,  it  is  obvious  that  all  species  suc- 
cumb on  impoverished  soil  more  rapidly  than  on  good  soil. 


150  FOREST  PROTECTION 

This  observation  is  backed  by  the  facts  exhibited  near  Ducktown, 
Tenn.,  where  the  shade  trees  in  the  gardens  seem  to  do  re- 
markably well  in  close  proximity  to  the  smelters. 

Ceteris  paribus,  the  following  schedule  has  been  arranged  as  the 
result  of  investigations  for  the  trees  in  the  Ducktown  region 
having  over  7"  diameter,  the  trees  most  easily  killed  by  SOj 
being  placed  at  the  top  of  the  schedule: 

Susceptibility  to  Actual  Injury. 
White  Pine 
Hemlock 
Scrub  Pine 
Pitch  Pine 
Birch 
Chestnut 
Hickory 
Oaks 

Yellow  Poplar 
Maple 
Black  Gum 
This  schedule  tallies  well  with  the  schedule  given  by  European 

authors  for  closely  related  species. 
If  a  smiilar  schedule  is  formed  according  to  the  ease  of  discolor- 
ation, entirely  different  results  are  obtained: 
Susceptibility  to  Discoloration. 

VERY  easily  medium  NOT  APT  TO  BE 

DISCOLORED  DISCOLORED  DISCOLORED 

Black  Oak  Poplar  Black  Gum 

Hickory  White  Oak  White  Pine 

Scarlet  Oak  Chestnut  Oak  Maple 

Chestnut  Post  Oak  Pitch  Pine 

Spanish  Oak  Hemlock 

Noteworthy  it  is  that  the  power  of  resistance  to  fumes  is  more 
increased  by   the   power   of   reproduction  than   decreased  by 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  leaves. 
In  nature,  wherever  grave  deviations  from  exact  schedules  of  sen- 
sitiveness are  found,  it  stands  to  reason  that  other  influences, 
aside  from  sulphurfumes,   are  simultaneously   responsible  for 
the  death  or  for  the  discoloration  of  the  trees. 
The  best  time  for  any  observations  in  the  forest  is  the  late  sum- 
mer or  early  fall  (the  time  between  August  15  and  October  1). 
Sulphurfumes  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  local  death  of 
trees  within  a  "smoke  region," 

(1)    if  species  known  to  be  more  sensitive  are  less  affected 
than  species  known  to  be  more  resistent; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  151 

(2)  if   tall   specimens   are   no   more   affected   than   short 

specimens;  or  if  the  trees  die  from  below; 

(3)  if  the  dying  trees  are  affected  with  a  fungus-disease 

(e.  g.  White  Pine  blight  and  Chestnut  blight) 
or  an  insect  disease  causing  the  death  of  the 
trees  outside  the  smoke  region; 

(4)  if  death  and  discoloration  are  confined  to  one  species 

onlj^; 

(5)  if  the  owner  of  the  forests,   allowing  indiscriminate 

logging,  or  allowing  forest  fires  to  rage,  is  guilty 
of  contributory  negligence; 

(6)  if  discoloration  is  caused  by  late  frost,  or  draught, 

or  leaf  fungi; 

(7)  if  the  death  rate  within  the  smoke  region  is  no  greater 

than  the  death  rate  without,  under  otherwise 
equal  conditions  (of  geology,  soil-fertility,  as- 
pect, forest  fires,  desiccation,  storms,  insects, 
fungi  and  prior  treatment  of  forests); 

(8)  if  dying  and  living  trees  are  normally  covered  with 

tree  mosses,  algse  and  lichens; 

(9)  if  the  death  rate  at  the  windward  edge  of  the  for- 

ests is  not  larger  than  the  death  rate  in  the  in- 
terior; 

(10)  if  the  size  of  the  annual  rings  of  accretion  is  not  ab- 

normally small; 

(11)  if  there  are  at  hand,   in  the   affected  region,   other 

plausible   causes   of  discoloration   and   of   death. 

Preventive  Measures. 

1.      In  the  source  of  damage: 

(a)  Dilution  of  fumes 

by  emission  into  the  upper  atmosphere  from 
mountain  tops  or  from  high    smoke-stacks; 

by  accelerated  conversion  of  SO  2  into  SOi; 

by  artificial  draught  increasing  the  rapidity  of 
dilution; 

by  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

(b)  Other  means  suggested: 

by  running  smelter  plants  at  night  (possible  in 
pygmean  operations  only); 

by  discontinuing  operations  in  May,  Jime  and 
July  (impossible  where  himdreds  of  workmen 
depend  on  continued  employment); 


152  FOREST  PROTECTION 

by  smelting  in  the  regions  where  the  hardwoods 
prevail;  where  the  forest  has  little  value;  on 
islands;  in  deserts  or  prairies. 
2.      In  woodlands  adjoining: 

(a)  Conversion  of  woodlands  into  farms  or  pastures;  oJ 

of  high  forest  into  low  forest; 

(b)  Cutting  affected  and  dying  trees; 

(c)  Maintaining  the  fertility  and,  notably,  the  water  con- 

tents of  the  soil  through  protection  from  fire  and 
by  keeping  a  dense  undergrowth; 

(d)  Avoidance  of  partial  logging. 


I.     Index  to  Malefactors. 


Acanthocinus  nodosus  Fab.,  48. 

Acanthocinus  obsoletus  Oliv.,  48. 

Acrnceo  pulchella  Hbst.,  57. 

Aecidium  pint,  119. 

Aegeria  acerni  Clem.,  88. 

AgaricacecB,  117. 

Agaricus  melleus,  114,  119. 

Agrilus  anxius  Gory,  64,  65. 

Agrilus  bilineatus  Web.,  67,  68. 

Agrilus  otiosus  Say,  73. 

alder  111. 

Allorhina  nitida  Linn.,  62. 

Ambrosia,  114. 

Ametabola,  21. 

Ampelopsis,  112. 

Andromeda,  111. 

animals,  12. 

Anisota  rubicunda  Fab.,  88. 

Anisota  senatoria  S.  &  A.,  85. 

Anisota  stigma  Fab.,  85. 

Apatela  americana  Harr.,  86,  88. 

Aphididoe,  21,  29,  34,  101,  102,  103, 

105,  106. 
Aphrophora  paralella  Say,  101. 
Apian  nigrum  Hbst.,  73. 
Arceuthobium  cryptopoda,  126. 
Arceuthobium  occidentale,  126. 
Arceuthobium  pusillum,  126. 
Archips  fervidana  Clem.,  85. 
Arctiidae,  21,  77,  82,  85,  86,  87,  88. 
Arhopalus  fulminans  Fab.,  43,  67, 

68. 
Ascomycetes,  116,  118. 
Asemum  mcestum  Hald.,  43,  48,  50. 
Asemum  nitidum  Lee,  53,  54. 
AsilidcB,  20. 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comst.,  104. 
Aspidiottis  tenebricosus  Comst.,  106. 
Asterolecanium    variolosum     Ratz., 

104. 
Attelabv^  analis,  Web.,  62. 
AwtoTnem  io  Fab.,  88. 
Azalea,  112. 
Balaninus,  67. 

Balaninus  nasicus  Say,  63,  68. 
Balaninus  proboscidus  Fab.,  67. 
Balaninus  rectus  Say,  63,  67. 
Basidiomycetes,  117. 
Basilona  imperialis  Dru.,  77,  82. 
beaver,  18. 
beech.  111. 

Bellamira  scalaris  Say,  65, 
birds,  18. 


blackberry,  109,  111,  112. 

Blastobasidce,  85. 

blueberry,  109. 

bluejay,  18. 

boar,  wild,  15. 

Bombycidce,  21. 

Bostrichidce,  29,  34. 

box-elder,  109. 

Brachys  ceruginosa  Gory,  66. 

Brenthidce,  21,  29,  33,  57,  66,  67,  68, 

69. 
Buprestidae,  21,  29,  32,  43,  48,  49, 

50,  52,  53,  54,  56,  57,  63,  65,  66, 

67,  68,  73,  74. 
Buprestis  apricans  Hbst.,  48. 
Buprestis  aurulenta  Linn.,   43,   48, 

50,  56. 
Callidium  cereum  Newm.,  67. 
Callidium  antennatum  Newm.,  48, 

61. 
Callidium  janthinum  Lee,  59. 
Callipterus  ulmifolii  Monell,  105. 
Callosamia  promethea  Dru.,  90. 
Camponotus  herculeanus  Linn.,  97. 
CaraUdce,  20. 

Carphoborus,  44,  47,  51,  54. 
caterpillars,  Lepidopterous,  34. 
Catocala  spp.,  85. 
Cecidomyia  carycecola  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  clavula  Beuten,  100. 
Cecidomyia  holotricha  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  liriodendri  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  niveipila  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  pilidae  Walsh,  100. 
Cecidomyia  pinirigidce  Pack.,  99. 
Cecidomyia  poculum  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  resinicola  O.  S.,  99. 
Cecidomyia  tubicola  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  tidipifera  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyiidce,  21,  29,  99,  100. 
Cedar  apples,  119. 
Cerambycidoe,  21,  29,  32,  33,  35,  43, 

45,  47,  48,  50,  52,  54,  55,  56,  57, 

58,  59,  61,  62,  63,  65,  66,  67,  68, 

69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  74,  75,  76. 
Ceratocampidoe,  77,  82,  85,  88. 
Ceratographis  pusillus  Kby.,  48. 
Ceratomia  amyntor  Geyer,  86. 
Ceratomia  catalpce  Boisd.,  91. 
Ceratomia  undulosa  Walk.,  90. 
Ceratostomella  pilifera,  123. 
Chaitophorus  aceris  Linn.,  106. 
Chalcidoidea,  20. 


153 


154 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Chermes  abietis  Linn.,  102. 
Chermes  pinicorticis  Fitch.,  101. 
Chermes  sibiricus  Chold.,  102. 
Chermes  strobi  Hart.,  101. 
Chion  cinctiis  Dru.,  63,  67,  68. 
Chionaspis  americana  Johns,  105. 
Chionaspis  pinifolice  Fitch.,  101. 
chinquapin,  110,  111,  112. 
chipmunk,  16. 
Chalciphora    virginiensis    Dru.,    43, 

48,  50. 
Chramesus  icorioe  Lee,  63. 
Chrysohothris  dentipes  Germ.,  48. 
Chrysobothris  femorata  Fab.,  63,  67, 

68,  74. 
Chrysobothris  6-signata  Say,  65. 
Chrysomela  scalaris  Lee,  75. 
Chrysomelidce,  21,  29,  48,  63,  68,  69, 

73,  75. 
Cercopidce,  101. 
Cicada,  104,  106. 
Cicadidce,  21,  30,  35,  104,  106. 
Cicindelidce,  20. 
Cimbex  americana  Leach,  97. 
atheroma  regalis  Fab.,  82. 
Clematis,  112. 
Cleridce,  20. 
climbers,  112. 
Coccidce,  21,  29,  34,  101,  102,  103, 

104,  105,  106. 
CoccineUidce,  20. 
Cochlidiidce,  85. 
Coleoptera,  20,  21,  38,  43-76. 
Colopha  ulmicola  Fitch.,  105. 
Colydiidoe,  20. 
Componotus    pennsylvanicus    Deg., 

94 
Conotrachelus  elegans  Say,  63. 
Conotrachelus  juglandis  Lee,  62. 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst.,  63. 
Convolvulus,  110. 
Corthylus  columbianus  Hpk.,  66,  68, 

70. 
Corthylus  punctatissimus  Zm.,  74. 
Cossidce,  21,  29,  85,  86,  87,  88. 
Cotalpa  lanigera  Linn.,  64,  68. 
cotton  woods,  111. 
Crepidodera  rufipes  Linn.,  73. 
Cressonia  juglandis  S.  &  A.,  82. 
cross-bills,  18. 
crows,  18. 

Cryphalus,  50,  55,  56. 
Cryptorhynchus,  67. 
Cryptorhynchus  parochus  Hbst.,  62. 
Crypturgus  atomus  Lee,  43,  50. 
Crypturgus  pusillus,  48. 
CurculionidoB,  21,  29,  30,  32,  35,  36, 


37,  43,  44,  48,  50,  51,  56,  57,  62, 

63,  67,  68,  69,  73. 
Curius  dentatus  Newm.,  57. 
Cynips  spp.,  96. 
Cyllene  picta  Dru.,  63. 
Cyllene  robinas  Forst.,  73,  114,  121. 
Cytiipidce,  30,  96.  ._ii;_'.i^ 

Cynipoidea,  21,  29,  i-  •    '.^^^ 

damping-off,  120.  I'tj    CJS 

Dantana  angusii  G.  &  R.,  85.      ^ 
Dantana  integerrima  Dru.,  82. 
Dantana  ministra  G.  &  R.,  82,  83, 

85,  89. 
deer,  15. 

Dendroctomis,  44,  45,  46,  47,  49. 
Dendroctonus  approximatus  Dtz.,  47. 
Dendroctonu^    brevicomis   Lee,    44, 

47. 
Dendroctonus  engelmanni  Hopk.,  51. 
Dendroctonus  fontalis,  31,  43,  48,  50, 

114. 
Dendroctonus  monticolce  Hopk.,  44, 

45,  46,  47. 
Dendroctonus  obesus  Mann.,  48,  51. 
Dendroctonus  piceaperda  Hopk.,  31, 

50. 
Dendroctonus  ponderosoe  Hopk.,  47. 
Dendroctonus  psettdotsuga  Hopk.,  54, 
Dendroctonus  similis  Lee,  49,  54. 
Dendroctonus  terebrans  Oliv.,  43,  48. 
Dendroctonus  valens  Lee,  43,  46,  47, 

48. 
Diapheroniera  femorata  Say,  108. 
Diaporthe  parasitica  Murrill,  120. 
Dicerca  lurida  Fab.,  63. 
Dicerca  obscura  Fab.,  63,  74. 
Dioryctria  reniculella  Grote,  78. 
Diptera,  20,  21,  38,  99,  100. 
Discomycetes,  116,  118. 
dogwood,  110,  111,  112. 
Dolurgus  pumilis  Mann.,  51. 
doves,  18. 

Drepanosiphum  acerifolii  Thos.,  106. 
drought,  114. 
Dryocartes,  43,  50. 
Dryocartes  affaber  Mann.,  51. 
Dryocartes  autographus  Ratz.,  50. 
Dryocartes  eichhoffi  Hopk.,  65. 
Dryocartes  granicollis  Lee,  50. 
Dryophilus,  59. 

Eburia  quadrigeminata  Say,  63,  76. 
Ecdytolopha  insiticiana  Zell.,  87. 
Echinodontium  tinctorium,  123. 
Elaphidion  villosuvi  Fab.,  63,  68,  74. 
Elateridce,  20,  21,  30. 
Enarmonia  bracteatans  Fern.,  77. 
Enarmonia  caryana  Fitch.,  82. 


INDEX  TO  MALEFACTORS 


155 


Epargyreus  tityrus  Fab.,  87. 
Eraunis  tiliaria  Harr..  89. 
Ergates  spicidaius  Lee,  47,  48. 
Ericaav,  110,  117. 
erosion,  138. 

Endocimus  mannerheimii  Boh.,  57. 
Euclea  ddphinii  Boisd.,  85. 
Eidecanium  tidipifenv  Cook,  105. 
Eidia  politana  Haw.,  77. 
Eunomos  ynagnarius  Guen.,  84. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhea  Linn.,  85. 
Eupsalis  minuta  Dru.,   57,   66,   67, 

68,  69. 
Eu3chausia  argentata  Pack.,  77. 
Euvanessa  antiopa  Linn.,  86. 
Evetria  comstockiana  Fern.,  77. 
Evetria  frustrana  Comst.,  77. 
Evetria  rigidana  Fern.,  77. 
Exoascece,  117. 
Exobasidium  vaccinii,  117. 
ferns,  111,  112. 
finches,  18. 
fire,  8,  114. 
FormicidcB,  94,  97. 
Formicoidea,  20. 
frost,  127. 
fungi,  113,  115. 
Galerucella  luteola  Mull.,  69. 
GauTOtes  cyanipennis  Say,  62. 
Gelechiidce,  77,  78. 
Geometridce,  78.  84.  86.  89. 
Glyptoscelis  pubescens  Fab.,  48. 
Gnathotrichiis,  47. 
Gnatliotrichus  materiarius  Fitch.,  43, 

48,  50. 
Gnathotrichus  sulcatus  Lee,  53,  54, 

55,  59. 
Goes  ocidatus  Lee,  63. 
Goes  pidchra  Hald.,  63. 
Goes  pulvcrulentus  Hid.,  66. 
Goes  tesselata  Hald..  68. 
Goes  tigrina  DeG.,  63,  68. 
Gossyparia  spuria  Mod.,  105. 
grapevine,  109,  110. 
Grapkisurus  fasciatus  DeG.,  68. 
ground-hog,  18. 
grouse,  18. 
Gryllidce.  30,  36,  107. 
Gryllotalpa  boreal  is  Bumi.,  107. 
GryUus  spp.,  107. 
gum,  black,  109,  110.  Ill,  112. 
Gymnosporangium,  119. 
Halesia   {Mohrodendron),   109,   111, 

116. 
Halisidota  caryce  Harr.,  82. 
Halisidota  maculata  Harr.,  86. 


Halisidota  tesselaris  S.  &  A.,  85,  86, 

88 
hazei,  112. 

hazel,  witch,  109,  110. 
heat,  132. 
heather,  109. 
hedge-hog,  18. 
Hemerocampa  leucostigma  S.  &  A., 

86,  87,  88,  89. 
Hei7iileuca  main  Dru.,  85. 
Hemimetabola,  21. 
Hemiptera,  20,  21,  38,  101-106. 
Hepialida,  84,  87. 
Herpotrichia,  114. 
Hesperidce,  21. 

Heterocampa  bilineata  Pack.,  89. 
Holcoccra  glandidella  Riley,  85. 
Homoptera  lunata  Dru.,  88. 
huckleberry.  111. 
Hylastes  cavernosus  Zimm.,  43. 
Hylastes  porosus  Er.,  47. 
Hylastinus  riifipes  Eichh.,  69. 
Hyleccetus  americanus  Harr.,  68. 
Hyleca'tus  lugubris  Say,  67. 
Hylesiiius,  53,  54,  55. 
Hylesinus  acideatus  Say,  76. 
Hylesinus  gramdatus  Lee,  55. 
Hylesinus  nebulosus  Lee,  54. 
Hylobius  pales  Hbst.,  43,  48. 
Hylotrupes  amethystinus  Lee,  59. 
Hylotrupes  ligneus  Fab.,  61. 
Hylurgops  glabraius  Zeff.,  43. 
Hylurgops  pinifex  Fitch.,  48. 
Hylurgops  rugipennis  Mann.,  51. 
Hylurgops  subcostulatus  Mann.,  44, 

45,  46,  47. 
Hymenomycetes,  117,  118. 
Hymenoptera,  20,  21,  38,  92-98. 
Hyphantria  cunea  Dru.,  87,  90. 
Hyphantria  textor  Harr..  85. 
Hypoderma  strobicola,  120. 
Hysterium  pitiastri,  119. 
Ichneumonoidea.  20. 
Incurraria  acerifoliella  Fitch.,  88. 
insects,  20. 
Isoptera,  107. 

Ithycerus  noveboracensis  Fst.,  68. 
Janus  integer  Xort.,  95. 
Kaliosphinga  dohrnii  Tischb.,  95. 
Kaliosphinga  ulmi  Sund.,  97. 
Kalmia,  109,  111,  112. 
Kermes,  104. 

Lachnus  strobi  Fitch.,  101. 
Lagoa  crispata  Pack.,  85. 
Lapara  bombycoides  Walk.,  77. 
Lapara  coniferarum  S.  &  A.,  77. 


156 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Lasiocampidce,  85,  88. 

Lecanium,  101,  103. 

Lecanium  nigrofasciatum  Prg.,  106. 

Lenzites  sepiaria,  123. 

Lepidoptera,  21,  29,  34,  38,  77-91. 

Leptostylus  aculiferus  Say,  70. 

Leptura  canadensis  Fab.,  50,  52. 

Leucotermes  flavipes  Koll.,   107. 

Liparidce,  21,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89. 

Lithocolletes  hamadryella  Clem.,  85. 

Locustidoi,  21,  108. 

Lophyrus  abbotii  Leach,  92. 

Lophyrus  lecontei  Fitch,  92. 

Lydidoe,  29,  34. 

Lyctus  spp.,  63,  76. 

Lyda,  92. 

Lygceonematus  erichsonii  Hart.,  93. 

Lymexilonidce,  29,  33. 

Lymexylidce,  67,  68. 

Lymexylon  sericeum  Harr.,  67,  68. 

Magdalis  armicollis  Say,  69. 

Magdalis  barbata  Say,  69. 

Magdalis  olyra  Herbst.,  66. 

Malacosoma  disstria  Hubn.,  85,  88. 

Mallodon  dasystomus  Say,  63,  68. 

Mallodon  melanopus  Linn.,  68. 

man,  7. 

Mantidce,  20. 

maple,  111. 

Mecas  inornata  Say,  64. 

Megalopygidce,  85. 

Melandryidce,  50,  56. 

Melanophila,  49. 

Melanophila  drummondi  Kby.,   53, 

54. 
Melanophila  fulvoguttata  Harr.,  52. 
Melasoma  lapponica  Linn.,  64. 
Melasoma  scripta  Fab.,  64. 
Metabola,  21. 
mice,  16. 

Microcentrum  laurifolium  Linn.,  108. 
Mohrodendron  (Halesia),  116. 
Monohammus    confusor    Kbj^,    48, 

50. 
Monohammus  scutellatus  Say,  43,  45, 

48. 
Mycelophilidce,  100. 
Mytilaspis,  101,  103. 
Myxomycetes,  118. 
Nectria,  116. 
Nematus,  34. 
Nematus  erichsonii,  35. 
Nematus  integer  Say,  94. 
Neoclytus  caprcea  Say,  76. 
Neoclytus  erythrocephalus  Fab.,  57, 

71,  74,  76. 
Neophasia  menapia  Feld.,  77,  79. 


Neuroptera,  20. 

Noctuidce,  21,  29,  36,  85,  86,  88. 
Noiodontidce,  82,  83,  85,  89. 
Notoiophus  antiqua  Linn.,  85. 
Nymphalidoe,  86. 
oak,  black  jack,  110. 
Odontota  dorsalis  Thunb.,  73. 
Odontota  rubra  Web.,  75. 
Odontota  scutellaris  Oliv.,  73. 
Oecanthus  pini  Beut.,  107. 
Oeme  rigida  Say,  57. 
Ondderes  cingulata  Say,  63,  68. 
Orthoptera,  20,  21,  38,  107,  108. 
Orthosoma  brunneum  DeG.,  48. 
Pachylobius  picivorus  Germ.,  43,  48. 
Pachyta  monticola  Rand,  56. 
Paleacrita  vernata  Peck,  86. 
Pantographia  limata  G.  &  R.,  89. 
Papilionidce,  21. 

Paralechia  pinifoliella  Cham.,  77. 
Parharmonia  pini,  VrelL,  77. 
pasturage,  12. 

Paururus  hopkinsi  Ashm.,  92. 
Paururus  pinicola  Ashm.,  92. 
Pemphigus  tessellatus  Fitch.,  103. 
Peridermium  strobi,  119. 
Peronosporece,  116,  117. 
Peziza,  117. 
PJiasmidce,  21,  108. 
Phenacoccus  acericola  King,  106. 
Philedia  punctomacularia,  78. 
Phlarosinus,  57. 

Phlarosinus  cupressi  Hopk.,  58,  60. 
Phlarosinus  dentatus  Say,  61. 
Phlarosinus  punclatus  Lee,  59,  60. 
Phlarosinus  sequoice  Hopk.,  58,  59. 
Phoradendron  flavescens,  126. 
Phycitidoe,  30,  37,  77,  78. 
Phycomycetes ,  116. 
Phylloxera  pallida  Linn.,  64. 
Phymatodes  decussatus  Lee,  58. 
Phymatodes  variabilis  Linn.,  64. 
Physoenemum  andreoe  Hald.,  57, 
Phytophtora  omnivora,  116. 
Pieridce,  77,  79. 

Pinipestis  zimmermanni  Grte.,  77, 
pigeons,  18. 
Pissodes,  44.  51. 
Pissodes  dubius  Rand,  56. 
Pissodes  strobi  Peck,  43,  48,  50. 
Pityogenes,  43,  45,  55. 
Pityogenes  carinulatus  Lee,  47. 
Pityogenes  cariniceps,  47. 
Pityogenes  plagiatus  Lee,  48. 
Pityophthorus,   43,   45,   46,   47,   48, 

50,  55,  65. 
Pityophthorus  cariniceps  Lee,  50. 


INDEX  TO  MALEFACTORS 


157 


Pityophthorus  confinis  Lee,  47. 
Pityophthorus  minutissimus  Zimm., 

68. 
Pityophthorus  nitidvlus  Mann.,  45, 

51,  54. 
Pityophthorus  pruinosus  Eichh.,  68. 
Pityophthorus  pubipennis  Lee,  68. 
Pityophthorus  puncticollis  Lee,  45, 

47,  51. 
Pityoplithoriis  querciperda  Schw.,  68. 
Plagionotus  speciosus  Say,  74. 
Platypus,  43,  53,  54. 
Platypus   compositus   Say,     57,   67, 

68. 
Polygonia  interrogationis  Fab.,  86. 
Polygraph-US  mfipennis  Kby.,  50. 
Polyporaceoe,  117. 
Polyporus  annosus,  120. 
Polyporus  applanatus,  122. 
Polyporus  betulinus,  122. 
Polyporus  carneus,  121. 
Polyporus  catalpce,  121. 
Polyporus  fomentarius,  122. 
Polyporus  fraxinophilus,  121. 
Polyporus  fulvus,  122. 
Polyporus  igniarius,  122. 
Polyporus  juniperimis,  121. 
Polyporus  libocedris,  122. 
Polyporus  nigricans,  122. 
Polyporus  obtusus,  122. 
Polyporus  pergamentis,  122. 
Polyporus  pinicola,  122,  123. 
Polyporus  ponderosus,  123. 
Polyporus  schweinitzii,  121. 
Polyporus  squamosus,  122. 
Polyporus  sidfureus,  122. 
Polyporus  rimosus,  114,  121. 
Polyporus  versicolor,  121. 
porcupine,  18. 
Porthetria  dispar,  Linn.,  85. 
Prionoxystus  robinioe  Peck.,  85,  87. 
Prionus  laticollis  Dru.,  48,  64,  67, 

68. 
Proctotrypoidea,  20. 
Pseudococcus  aceris  Goeff.,  106. 
Psychidm,  81. 
PsylUdce,  29,  34. 
Pterocyclon  fasciatum  Saj"-,  57. 
Pterocyclon  mali  Fitch.,  50,  57,  66, 

68,  72. 
Pteronus  ventralis  Say,  95. 
Ptilinus  ruficomis  Say,  74. 
Ptinidce,  21,  29,  32,  34. 
Ptininidoe,  47,  59.  63,  74,  76. 
Pvlvinaria     innumerabilis     Rathy, 

106. 
PyralidoE,  89. 


Pyrenomycetes,  116,  118. 
Recurvaria  obliquestrigella  Cham., 78. 
Reduviida',  20. 

Rhagium  lineatum  Oliv.,  43,  48,  50. 
Rhizococcus,  101,  102. 
Rhododendron,  112. 
sand,  shifting,  139. 
Saperda,  72. 

Saperda  calcarata  Say,  64. 
Saperda  concolor  Lee,  64. 
Saperda  discoidea  Fab.,  63. 
Saperda  tridentata  Oliv.,  69. 
Saperda  vestita  Say,  75. 
Saturniidce,  82,  83,  85,  88,  89,  90. 
5cara6(eid(B,  21,  29,  36,  62,  68,  76. 
Schizoneura  imbricator  Fitch.,  103. 
Sciara  ocellata  O.  S.,  100. 
Scolytidce,  21,  29,  31,  33,  35,  43-61, 

63,  65-70,  72,  74-76. 
Scolytus,  50,  55. 
Scolyttis  prceceps  Lee,  55. 
Scolytus  quadrispinosus  Say,  63. 
Scolytus  rugidosus  Ratz.,  72. 
Scolytus  subscaber  Lee,  55. 
Scolytus  unispinosus  Lee,  49,  54. 
Schizoneura  americana  Riley,  105. 
Schizophyllum  commune,  123. 
sedge,  broom,  16. 
sedge-grass,  109. 
Selandria  diluta  Cress.,  96. 
Serica  trociformis  Burm.,  68. 
Serropalpus  barbatus  Schall.,  50,  56. 
Sesiidce,  29,  77,  80,  88. 
Sinoxylon  basilare  Say,  63. 
SincidoP;  29,  92,  94,  96,  98. 
sleet,  134. 
smilax,  109. 
snow,  134. 

Sphingidce,  77,  82,  86,  90,  91. 
Sphinx  Kalmias  S.  &  A.,  90. 
squatters,  7. 
squirrels,  16. 
Sthenopis   argenteomaculatus    Harr. , 

84. 
storm,  114,  1.36. 
sulphur  fumes,  141. 
sunscald,  133. 

Symmerista  albifrons  S.  &  A.,  85. 
SyrpMdoe,  20,  21. 
Systena  marginalis  III.,  63. 
Telea  polyphemus  Cram.,  82,  83,  85, 

88  89 
Tent'hreditndce,   29,   34,  92,  93,  94, 

95,  96.  97. 
Termitidoe,  107. 
Tetropium  cinnamopterum  Kby.,  50. 


158 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Thyridopteryx  ephemerceformis  Haw. 

81. 
Tibicen  septendedm  Linn.,  104,  106. 
TiUandsia  usneoides,  126. 
TineidcB,  29,  35,  85,  88. 
Tomicus,  45,  50,  55. 
Tomicus  avulsus  Eichh.,  43,  48. 
Tomicus  balsameus  Lee,  50,  56. 
Tomicus  cacographus  Lee,  43,  48, 

50. 
Tomicus  coelatus  Eichh.,  43,  48. 
Tomicus  calligraphus  Germ.,  43,  47, 

48. 
Tomicus  concinnus  Mann.,  51. 
Tomicus  confv^us  Lee,  47. 
Tomicus  integer  Eichh.,  46,  47. 
Tomicus  latidens  Lee,  44. 
Tomicus  monticola  Hopk.,  44. 
Tomicus  oregoni  Eichh.,  47. 
Tomicus  pint  Say,  43,  46,  48,  50. 
Tortricidce,  29,  30,  35,  37,  77,  78, 

82,  85,  87. 
Tortrix  fumiferana  Clem.,  78. 
Tortrix  quercifoliana  Fitch.,  85. 
Trachinidce,  20. 
Trametes  pini,  120. 
Trametes  radiciperda,  114,  120. 
Tremex  columha  Linn.,  96,  98. 
TricIwsphcBria,  114. 
Trogositidoe ,  20. 
Trypodendron,  65. 
Trypodendron     bivittatum     Mannh., 

48,  50,  51,  52. 
Trypodendron  fasciatum  Say,  74. 
Trypodendron  mali  Fitch.,  74. 
turkey,  wild,  18. 


Uredinece,  117. 

Urocerus  abdominalis  liarr.,  94. 
Urocerus  albicornis  Fab.,  94. 
Urocerus  flavipennis  Kby.,  94. 
Urographis  fasciatus  Horn.,  62,  63, 

67,  68,  71,  74. 
JJsnea  barbata,  126. 
Ustilaginece,  117. 
Vaccinium,  112. 

Vespamima  sequoia  Hy.  Edw.,  77, 

80. 
Vespoidca,  20. 
Vitis,  112. 
weeds,  109. 
windstorm,  136. 
woodchuck,  18. 
woodpeckers,  18. 
Xyleborus,  57. 

Xyleborus,  ccelatus  Zimm.,  50,  74. 
Xyleborus  celsus  Eichh.,  63,  68. 
Xyleborus  dispar  Fab.,  70. 
Xyleborus  fuscatus  Eichh.,  68. 
Xyleborus  obesus  Lee,  52,  68,  74. 
Xyleborus  politus  Say,  50,  66,  74. 
Xrjleborus  pubesceus  Zimm.,  48,  67, 

74. 
Xyleborus    saxeseni   Ratz.,    52,    54, 

63,  64,  66,  68,  72,  74. 
Xyleborus  tachygraphus  Zimm.,  70, 

74. 
Xylochinus,  50,  56. 
Xylotrechus   colonus   Fab.,    63,    67, 

68.  74. 

Xylotrechus  undulatus  Say,  52,  54, 

55. 
Zeuzera7pyrina  Linn.,  86,  87,  88. 
Zygcenidce,  21. 'J 


II.     Index  of  Species  Affected. 


Abies  balsam ea,  56. 

Abies  concolor,  55. 

Abies  fraseri.  56. 

Abies  grandis.  55. 

^cer,  74.  88.  9S,  100.  106. 

Alnus,  103,  111. 

Alnus  glutinosa,  95. 

Arbor-vitse,  121. 

ash,  white,  121,  122,  133. 

basswood,  18. 

beech,  18,  121,  122.  129,  133. 

Betula,  65.  83. 

birch,  18,  122.  150. 

black  gum,  129,  150. 

buffalo-nut.  16. 

Castanea,  67.  84. 

Catalpa,  91,  121.  129. 

cedar,  incense,  122. 

Cha77icecyparis,  61. 

ChamcEcyparis  lawsoniana,  60. 

cherr^',  16,  122,  128. 

chestnut,  19,  109,  120.  129.  133,  150. 

conifers,  107,  119.  120,  122. 

Cornusflorida.  100. 

Cottonwood,  18,  122,  129,  139. 

Cratcegus,  16. 

currant,  119. 

cvpress,  bald,  114,  122. 

Douglas  fir,  121,  129. 

Fagus.  66,  103. 

fir,  16,  17.  120. 

fir,  Douglas,  121. 

fir,  red,  123. 

Fraxinus,  76,  90. 

hazel,  18. 

hemlock,  (see  Tsuga),  18,  121,  123, 

131,  150. 
hemlock,  western,  121,  123. 
hickories,  17,  129,  135,  150. 
Hicoria,  63,  82,   100,  103. 
Incense  cedar,  122. 
Juglans,  62,  103. 
Jnniperus,  81. 
Juniperus  virginiana,  61. 
Kalmia,  18. 
Larix,  93. 

Larix  occidentalis,  49. 
linden,  16. 
Liquidambar ,  71. 
Liriodendron,  70,  100,  105,  129. 
locust,  16,  17,  114,  121,  135. 


maple,  16.  IS,  122,  128,  129,  150. 

oak.  16.  17,  19,  121,  122,  129,  150. 

oak,  chestnut,  128,  150. 

oak,  scarlet,  18,  150. 

oak.  white.  18,  150. 

Picea,  50,  51,  78.  94,   102. 

Picea  engelmanni,  51. 

Picea  pungens,  16. 

Picea  sitchensis,  16,  51. 

pine,  16,  120,  135,  139. 

pine,  seedlings,  119,  131. 

pine,  white,  119,  131,  133,  150. 

pine,  vellow,  109. 

Pinus.  76,  92,  99,  101. 

Pinus  cembra,  119. 

Pinm  echinata,  16,  48,  129,  130. 

Pinus  flexilis,  45. 

Pinus  jeffreyi,  47. 

Pinus  lambertiana,  44,  129. 

Pinus  monticola.  45,  121. 

Pinus  murrayana,  46. 

Pinus  palustris,  48. 

Pinus  ponderosa,  47,  123,  129. 

Pinus  resinosa,  48. 

Pinus  rigida,  48,  129,  150. 

Pinus  stwbus,  43,  120,  129,  130,  131. 

Pinus  tccda,  48. 

poplar,  122. 

poplar,  vellow,  109,  115,  135,  150. 

Populus,  64,  95. 

Pseudotsuga,  54. 

Pyrularia,  16. 

Pyrus,  72. 

Quercus,  68,  85,  96,  100,  103. 

red-cedar,  18,  119,  121. 

Rhododendron,  18. 

Ribes,  119. 

Robinia,  73,  87. 

Sequoia,  58,  80. 

Sequoia  sempervirens,  123. 

spruce,   (see  Picea),   18,   123,   129, 

130,  131.  133. 
Taxodium  distichum,  57. 
Tilia,  75,  89. 
Tsuga,  79. 

Tsuga  canadensis,  52. 
Tsuga  heterophylla,  53. 
Thuja  gigantea,  59. 
Ulmus,  69.  86.  97,  105. 
walnut,  122,  128,  129,  130. 
willow,  139. 


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